Mental phenomena are the internal or subjective experience of a person.

In our consciousness, objects are reflected in the form of a mental image. However, when we look at an object, it is difficult to separate the image from the object; the image is, as it were, superimposed on the object.

All mental phenomena are inextricably linked, but traditionally they are divided into three groups:
1) mental processes;
2) mental states;
3) mental properties of the individual.

Mental processes should be considered as basic phenomena, and mental states and personality traits as a temporary and typological modification mental processes. Taken together, all mental phenomena form a single stream of reflective-regulatory activity.

Let's give a brief general characteristics these three groups psychic phenomena.
I. Mental processes– individual integral acts of reflective-regulatory activity. Each mental process has its own object of reflection, its own regulatory specificity and its own patterns.

Mental processes represent the initial group of mental phenomena: on their basis, mental images are formed.

Mental processes are divided into: 1) cognitive (sensation, perception, thinking, imagination and memory), 2) volitional, 3) emotional.

Human mental activity is a combination of cognitive, volitional and emotional processes.

II. Mental state– the temporary uniqueness of mental activity, determined by its content and a person’s attitude to this content. Mental state– current modification of the human psyche. It represents a relatively stable integration of all mental manifestations of a person with a certain interaction with reality.

All mental states are divided into:
1) motivational – needs-based attitudes, desires, interests, drives, passions;
2) states of organized consciousness (manifested in various levels of attentiveness and efficiency);
3) emotional (emotional tone of sensations, emotional response to reality, mood, conflicting emotional states - stress, affect, frustration);
4) volitional (states of initiative, determination, determination, perseverance, etc.; their classification is related to the structure of complex volitional action).

Borderline mental states of personality also differ– psychopathy, character accentuations, neuroses and states of delayed mental development.

III. Mental properties of personality– typical for this person features of his psyche, features of the implementation of his mental processes. Mental personality traits include: 1) temperament; 2) personality orientation (needs, interests, worldview, ideals); 3) character; 4) abilities (Fig. 3).

Under psychological facts understands a much wider range of manifestations of the psyche, including their objective forms (in the form of acts of behavior, bodily processes, products of human activity, socio-cultural phenomena), which are used by psychology to study the psyche - its properties, functions, patterns.

Unlike mental phenomena, psychological facts exist objectively and are available for objective study. Among these facts: acts of behavior, unconscious mental processes, psychosomatic phenomena (that is, processes occurring in our body under the influence of psychological factors), products of material and spiritual culture In all these acts the psyche manifests itself, reveals its properties and therefore can be studied through them.

Question 34: Sensory and perceptual psyche. Intelligent behavior

Sensory psyche

The entire history of the development of the psyche and behavior of animals, according to this concept, is divided into a number of stages and levels. There are two stages of the elementary “sensory psyche” and the perceptual psyche. The first includes two levels: the lowest and the highest, and the second - three levels: the lowest, the highest and the highest.

The stage of the elementary sensory psyche is characterized by primitive elements of sensitivity that do not go beyond the simplest sensations. This stage is associated with the allocation in animals of a specialized organ that carries out complex manipulative movements of the body with objects of the external world. Such an organ in lower animals is the jaws. They replace hands, which only humans and some higher animals have. The jaws retain their role as an organ of manipulation and exploration of the surrounding world for a long period of time, right up to the release of the animal's forelimbs for this purpose.

Lowest level stage of the elementary sensory psyche, in which the simplest and lowest are found multicellular organisms, living in an aquatic environment, is characterized by the fact that here irritability is presented in a fairly developed form - the ability of living organisms to respond to biologically significant environmental influences by increasing their level of activity, changing the direction and speed of movements. Sensitivity as the ability to respond to biologically neutral properties of the environment and readiness to learn by conditioned reflexes is still missing. The motor activity of animals does not yet have a searching, purposeful nature.

The next, highest level of the stage of the elementary sensory psyche, which living beings such as annelids and gastropods reach, is characterized by the appearance of the first elementary sensations and jaws as an organ of manipulation. The variability of behavior here is complemented by the emergence of the ability to acquire and consolidate life experience through conditioned reflex connections. At this level there is already sensitivity. Motor activity improves and acquires the character of a targeted search for biologically beneficial effects and avoidance of biologically harmful effects.

A more complex structure of activity among representatives of the perceptual psyche is expressed through the idea of ​​​​isolating operations. At this stage, each behavioral act is formed in ontogenesis through the implementation of genetically fixed components of species experience in the process of individual learning. This is due to the fact that each behavioral act consists of two main phases:

1) the search or preparatory phase - usually begins with endogenous activation and manifests itself in general anxiety and search actions of the animal; Usually, as a result, the animal encounters key stimuli, including the instinctive action itself, and more often - a whole chain of such; in this phase, behavior has the greatest plasticity; it is here that new modes of behavior are found and mastered;

2) the final phase - the closer to it, the more stereotypical the movements become; in the final phase itself, they become completely stereotypical and “forced.” " Specific gravity"of these phases in different behavioral acts can be different even in the same animal. But general rule- is that the higher the mental organization of the animal, the more developed and prolonged the search phase and the richer and more varied individual experience the animal can acquire. And often such experience is accumulated for future use - due to the performance of behavioral acts consisting only of a search phase in the absence of a final phase; the implementation of such actions is carried out solely due to cognitive activity.

By intellectual actions are called those in which the animal, based on the reflection of the connections and relationships existing between objects, solves new problems for it that have not previously been encountered in its experience. Intelligence is manifested by an animal when, in its actions, it encounters unusual difficulties, to overcome which instincts and skills are insufficient. In these cases, the animal's intelligence is manifested in the invention of a new method of action that has not been used by the animal before.

Intellectual actions are the highest form of adaptation of animals to the environment. They are based on complex conditioned reflex connections characteristic of the rational activity of animals.

In the process of phylogenesis, intellectual behavior gradually develops and becomes more complex. In an animal with an elementary structure of the cerebral cortex, intellectual behavior will also be elementary. In animals with a complexly organized cortex, intellectual behavior will be more complex and perfect.

58. Higher and lower mental functions. Development of higher mental functions in ontogenesis. Interiorization

Developed the doctrine of higher mental functions. L.S. Vygotsky suggested the existence of two lines of development of the psyche:

natural,

culturally mediated.

In accordance with these two lines of development, “lower” and “higher” mental functions are distinguished. Examples of lower, or natural, mental functions include involuntary memory or involuntary attention of a child. The child cannot control them: he pays attention to what is brightly unexpected; remembers what was accidentally remembered. Lower mental functions are a kind of rudiments from which higher mental functions grow in the process of education (in this example, voluntary attention and voluntary memory). The transformation of lower mental functions into higher ones occurs through the mastery of special tools of the psyche - signs and is of a cultural nature. The role of sign systems in the formation and functioning of the human psyche is, of course, fundamental - it defines a qualitatively new stage and a qualitatively different form of existence of the psyche.

Higher mental functions are complex mental processes that are formed during life, social in origin, mediated by psychological structure and arbitrary in the way of their existence (voluntary processes of attention, perception, memory, thinking, imagination, will, awareness of oneself and one’s actions). The most important characteristic of higher mental functions is their mediation by various “psychological tools” - sign systems, which are the product of the long socio-historical development of mankind. Among the “psychological tools,” speech plays the leading role; Therefore, speech mediation of higher mental functions is the most universal method and formation. The main characteristics of higher mental functions - mediocrity, awareness, arbitrariness - are systemic qualities that characterize higher mental functions as “psychological systems”. The pattern of formation of higher mental functions is that initially it exists as a form of interaction between people (i.e., as an interpsychological process) and only later as a completely internal (interpsychological) process. The transformation of external means of performing a function into internal psychological ones is called interiorization. Another important feature characterizing the logic of development of higher mental functions is their gradual “collapse”, automation. At the first stages of the formation of higher mental function, it is a detailed form of objective activity, which is based on relatively elementary sensory and motor processes; then these action processes are curtailed and acquire the character of automated mental actions. At the same time, the psychological structure of higher mental functions also changes.

The psychophysiological basis of higher mental function is complex functional systems, including a large number of afferent and efferent links and having a vertical and horizontal organization. Some of the links of the functional system are “rigidly attached” to certain areas of the brain, the rest have high plasticity and can replace each other, which lies in the construction of functional systems as a whole. Thus, higher mental functions are not associated with the work of one “brain center” or the entire brain as a homogeneous and equipotential whole, but are the result of systemic activity of the brain, in which different brain structures take a differentiated part.

In psychology, internalization refers to the formation of internal structures of the human psyche through the assimilation of external social activities, the appropriation of life experience, the formation of mental functions and development in general. Any complex action, before becoming the property of the mind, must be realized externally. Thanks to interiorization, we can talk to ourselves and actually think without disturbing others. Thanks to interiorization, the human psyche acquires the ability to operate with images of objects that are currently absent from its field of vision. A person goes beyond the boundaries of a given moment, freely “in his mind” moves into the past and into the future, in time and in space. Perhaps animals do not have such an ability and cannot voluntarily go beyond the boundaries of the current situation. An important tool of internalization is the word, and a means of arbitrary transition from one situation to another is the speech act. The word highlights and consolidates the essential properties of things and ways of handling information developed by the practice of mankind. Human action ceases to be dependent on the situation given from the outside, which determines the entire behavior of the animal. From this it is clear that mastering the correct use of words is simultaneously the assimilation of the essential properties of things and ways of handling information. Through words, a person assimilates the experience of all humanity, that is, tens and hundreds of previous generations, as well as people and groups hundreds and thousands of kilometers distant from him. This term was first used in the works of French sociologists (Durkheim and others), where interiorization was considered as one of the elements of socialization, meaning the borrowing of the main categories of individual consciousness from the sphere of social experience and public ideas. The concept of internalization was introduced into psychology by representatives of the French psychological school(J. Piaget, P. Janet, A. Vallon, etc.) and the Soviet psychologist L. S. Vygotsky. According to L. S. Vygotsky, every function of the human psyche initially develops as an external, social form of communication between people, as work or other activity, and only then, as a result of interiorization, becomes a component of the human psyche. Subsequently, interiorization was studied by P. Ya . Galperin as a process and formed the basis of a systematic, step-by-step formation.

Psychic phenomena - Various kinds of features of human behavior and mental life that are accessible to direct observation. The term “phenomenon” came to psychology from philosophy, where it usually denotes everything sensually (through sensations) perceived. For example, lightning or smoke are phenomena because we can directly observe them, but the chemical and physical processes behind these phenomena are not phenomena themselves, because they can only be recognized through the prism of the analytical apparatus.

It's the same in psychology. What can be recognized by any untrained observer, such as memory or character, are classified as mental phenomena. The rest, hidden, is considered psychic mechanisms. For example, this may be features of memory or psychological defense mechanisms. Of course, the line between phenomena and mechanisms is quite fluid. However, the term “psychic phenomena” is necessary to designate that circle primary information what we get about behavior and mental life.

It is quite obvious that mental phenomena can be divided into objective and subjective. Objective phenomena are accessible to an external observer (for example, character or many mental states). Subjective ones are accessible only to the internal observer (that is, to their owner himself - we are talking about introspection). Subjective phenomena include consciousness or values. An outside observer's access to consciousness or the sphere of values ​​is very limited. Of course, there are phenomena that can be classified as both subjective and objective. For example, these are emotions. On the one hand, emotions are perfectly “read” by outside observers. On the other hand, only the owner of an emotion can feel it to the end, and despite external similarity, emotions can differ greatly.

In classical Russian psychology, mental phenomena are divided into three types:

1) mental processes (memory, attention, perception, etc.),

2) mental states (fatigue, excitement, frustration, stress, etc.),

3) mental properties (character traits, temperament, orientation, values, etc.).

Mental processes are separate subprocesses of integral mental activity that have their own subject of reflection and a specific regulatory function. Memory, for example, as a subject of reflection, has some information that must be stored in time and then reproduced. Its regulatory function is to ensure the influence of past experience on current activities.

For convenience, sometimes mental processes are divided into cognitive (sensation, perception, thinking, memory and imagination) and regulatory (emotional and volitional). The former provide knowledge of reality, the latter regulate behavior. In fact, any mental process has an “input” and an “output”, that is, there is both the reception of information and some influence. But this is the essence of mental phenomena - they are not always what they seem.

In general, of all phenomena, mental processes are perhaps the most mysterious to understand. Take memory, for example. We know exactly when we learn something, when we repeat it, when we remember it. We have the ability to "strain" memory. However, in various kinds of neurophysiological studies, not even traces of memory as an independent and integral process were found. It turns out that memory functions are greatly blurred throughout higher nervous activity.

Another typical example is emotions. Every person has experienced emotions, but most find it difficult to define this mental phenomenon. In psychology, emotion is usually interpreted as a rather short-term subjective attitude, a person’s reaction to a particular event, phenomenon, or object. This emotion, in particular, is imprinted by values, character and other personality traits. Not very qualified observers usually tend to judge an emotion either as an emotion-cause of subsequent behavior, or as an emotion-reaction to an event. In any case, emotion is considered as something very integral, because it seems like that to us: whole, indivisible. In fact, emotion is a mental process with quite complex mechanism. The most direct impact on emotion is exerted by human instincts - innate tendencies to act one way and not another. Behind laughter, sadness, surprise, joy - instincts are everywhere. In addition, in any emotion one can find a struggle - a clash of different instinctive tendencies among themselves, as well as with the value sphere of the individual, his life experience. If there is no such struggle, then the emotion quickly fades: it turns into action or simply disappears. And, indeed, in emotions one can see not only the motivation for some action (or inaction), but also the result of the action (inaction). If a person successfully performs an action, his behavior is reinforced, almost literally “cemented,” so that in the future he continues to act in the same spirit. Subjectively, this is perceived as pleasure. It is important to understand that we are not given “candy” - we perceive the “cementing” of our behavior as “candy”.

A mental state is a temporary uniqueness of mental activity, determined by its content and a person’s attitude to this content. At a minimum, throughout the day we are in two different mental states: sleep and wakefulness. The first state differs from the second in a rather strongly narrowed consciousness and “switching off” sensations. It cannot be said that in a state of sleep a person is completely unconscious or completely devoid of sensations. When we wake up in the morning, we realize quite clearly, without even looking at the clock, how much we slept. If a person regains consciousness after anesthesia, he cannot even approximately estimate the duration of this state. In a dream, we are given sensations, but they are greatly inhibited. However, a strong sound or bright light easily wakes us up.

One of the most important parameters of mental state is the general functional level of mental activity. This level is influenced by many factors. For example, this could be the conditions and duration of activity, level of motivation, health, physical strength and even character traits. A hardworking person is able to maintain a high level of activity much longer.

Mental states can be short-term, situational and stable, personal. All mental states can be divided into four types:

Motivational (desires, aspirations, interests, drives, passions);

Emotional (emotional tone of sensations, emotional response to phenomena of reality, mood, stress, affect, frustration);

Volitional states (initiative, determination, determination, perseverance);

States different levels organization of consciousness (they manifest themselves in different levels of attentiveness).

The difficulty in observing and understanding mental states is that one mental state can be seen as an overlap of several states (eg fatigue and agitation, stress and irritability). If we assume that a person can experience only one mental state at a time, then we must admit that many mental states do not even have their own names. In some cases, labels such as “irritable fatigue” or “cheerful persistence” may be given. However, you cannot say “purposeful fatigue” or “cheerful stress”. It would be methodologically correct to judge not that one state breaks up into several other states, but that one large state has such and such parameters.

Mental properties of a person are phenomena that make it possible to differentiate the behavior of one person from the behavior of another over a long period of time. If we say that such and such a person loves the truth, then we assume that he very rarely deceives, in a variety of situations he tries to get to the bottom of the truth. If we say that a person loves freedom, we assume that he really does not like restrictions on his rights. And so on. The main essence of mental properties as phenomena is their differentiating power. It makes no sense to put forward mental properties of this kind as “having a memory” or “resembling a brook.”

It should be noted that the list of mental phenomena is not limited to processes, states and properties. There are, at a minimum, social relationships - also a mental phenomenon, but not reducible to properties or other phenomena.

Mental phenomena are observable (from within or outside) features of a person’s mental life.

All mental phenomena, which are closely interconnected and interdependent, are divided into three groups:

1) mental processes;

2) mental states;

3) mental properties of the individual.

Each of the groups is subject to further categorization into subgroups of the subject (individual or group) and the direction (internal or external) of the mental phenomenon. Moreover, the manifestation of external mental phenomena, both group and individual, is defined as behavior.

I. Mental process- a dynamic reflection of reality, an act of mental activity that has its own object of reflection and its own regulatory function. Mental reflection is the formation of an image of the conditions in which a given activity is carried out. Mental processes are the course of a mental phenomenon that has a beginning, development and end, manifesting itself in the form of a reaction, representing orientation-regulating components of activity.

Mental processes are divided into:

· cognitive - sensation, idea, perception, thinking, memory and imagination;

Regulatory - emotional, volitional.

All human mental activity is totality cognitive, volitional and emotional processes.

II. Mental state- this is a temporary uniqueness of mental activity, determined by its content and a person’s attitude to this content.

Mental states are relatively stable integration all mental manifestations of a person during a certain interaction with reality. Mental states are manifested in the general organization of the psyche.

Mental state is the general functional level of mental activity depending on the conditions of a person’s activity and his personal characteristics.

Mental states can be short-term, situational and stable, personal.

All mental states are divided into four types:

· Motivational (desires, aspirations, interests, drives, passions);

· Emotional (emotional tone of sensations, emotional response to phenomena of reality, mood, conflicting emotional states - stress, affect, frustration);

· Volitional states - initiative, determination, determination, perseverance (their classification is associated with the structure of complex volitional action);

· States of different levels of organization of consciousness (they manifest themselves in different levels of attentiveness).

A difficulty in observing and understanding mental states is that one mental state can be seen as an overlap of several states (eg, fatigue and agitation, stress and irritability). If we assume that a person can experience only one mental state at a time, then we must admit that many mental states do not even have their own names. In some cases, labels such as “irritable fatigue” or “cheerful persistence” may be given. However, you cannot say “purposeful fatigue” or “cheerful stress”. It would be methodologically correct to judge not that one state breaks up into several other states, but that one large state has such and such parameters.

III. Mental properties of personality– typical features of a given person’s psyche, features of the implementation of his mental processes. Mental properties of a person are phenomena that make it possible to differentiate the behavior of one person from the behavior of another over a long period of time. If we say that such and such a person loves the truth, then we assume that he very rarely deceives, in a variety of situations he tries to get to the bottom of the truth. If we say that a person loves freedom, we assume that he really does not like restrictions on his rights. And so on. The main essence of mental properties as phenomena is their differentiating power.

Mental personality traits include:

· temperament;

· personality orientation (needs, interests, worldview, ideals);

· character;

· capabilities.

This is the traditional classification of mental phenomena, coming from I. Kant. It underlies the construction of traditional psychology. However, this classification suffers from an artificial separation of mental processes from mental states and typological properties of the individual: cognitive, volitional and emotional processes are nothing more than certain mental capabilities (abilities) of the individual, and mental states are the current uniqueness of these capabilities.

Note that many of the phenomena studied in psychology cannot be unconditionally attributed to only one group. They can be both individual and group, appearing in the form of processes and states. For this reason, on the right side of the table, some of the listed phenomena are repeated.

Summary table of mental phenomena according to R.S. Nemov

The human psyche is complex and diverse in its manifestations. Usually there are three large groups of mental phenomena, namely:

1) mental processes, 2) mental states, 3) mental properties.

Mental processes- dynamic reflection of reality in various forms of mental phenomena.

Mental process- this is the course of a mental phenomenon that has a beginning, development and end, manifested in the form of a reaction. It must be borne in mind that the end of a mental process is closely related to the beginning of a new process. Hence the continuity of mental activity in the waking state of a person.

Mental processes are caused by both external influences and irritations nervous system, coming from the internal environment of the body.

All mental processes are divided into educational- these include sensations and perceptions, ideas and memory, thinking and imagination; emotional- active and passive experiences; strong-willed- decision, execution, volitional effort; etc.

Mental processes ensure the formation of knowledge and the primary regulation of human behavior and activity.

In complex mental activity, various processes are connected and form a single stream of consciousness, providing an adequate reflection of reality and implementation various types activities. Mental processes occur with varying speed and intensity depending on the characteristics of external influences and personality states.

Under mental state one should understand the relatively stable level of mental activity that has been determined at a given time, which manifests itself in increased or decreased activity of the individual.

Every person experiences different mental states every day. In one mental state, mental or physical work is easy and productive, in another it is difficult and ineffective.

Mental states are of a reflex nature: they arise under the influence of the situation, physiological factors, progress of work, time and verbal influences (praise, blame, etc.).

The most studied are: 1) general mental state, for example attention, manifested at the level of active concentration or absent-mindedness, 2) emotional states, or moods (cheerful, enthusiastic, sad, sorrowful, angry, irritable, etc.). There are interesting studies about a special, creative state of personality, which is called inspiration.

The highest and most stable regulators of mental activity are personality traits.

Under mental properties a person should be understood as stable formations that provide a certain qualitative and quantitative level of activity and behavior typical for a person.

Each mental property is formed gradually in the process of reflection and is consolidated in practice. It is therefore the result of reflective and practical activity.

Personality properties are diverse, and they need to be classified in accordance with the grouping of mental processes on the basis of which they are formed. This means that we can distinguish the properties of intellectual, or cognitive, volitional and emotional activity of a person. As an example, let's give some intellectual properties - observation, flexibility of mind; strong-willed - determination, perseverance; emotional - sensitivity, tenderness, passion, affectivity, etc.

Mental properties do not exist together, they are synthesized and form complex structural formations of the personality, which must include:

1) the life position of an individual (a system of needs, interests, beliefs that determines the selectivity and level of a person’s activity); 2) temperament (system natural properties personality - mobility, balance of behavior and activity tone, characterizing the dynamic side of behavior); 3) abilities (a system of intellectual-volitional and emotional properties that determine the creative capabilities of an individual) and, finally, 4) character as a system of relationships and modes of behavior.

In addition to individual psychology of behavior, the range of phenomena studied by psychology also includes relationships between people in various human associations - large and small groups, teams.

To summarize what has been said, let us present in the form of a diagram the main types of phenomena that are studied modern psychology(Fig. 2, table 1).

In Fig. 2 identifies the basic concepts through which phenomena studied in psychology are defined. Using these concepts, the names of twelve classes of phenomena studied in psychology are formulated. They are listed on the left side of the table. 1. On the right side there are examples of specific concepts that characterize the corresponding phenomena 1.

Rice. 2. General concepts with the help of which phenomena studied in psychology are described

The psyche is complex and diverse in its manifestations. There are usually three large groups mental phenomena:

1) mental processes;

2) mental states;

3) mental properties.

Mental processes – dynamic reflection of reality in various forms mental phenomena. A mental process is the course of a mental phenomenon that has a beginning, development and end. It must be borne in mind that the end of one mental process is closely connected with the beginning of another. Hence the continuity of mental activity in a person’s waking state. Mental processes are caused both by external influences on the nervous system and by irritations emanating from the internal environment of the body. All mental processes are divided into cognitive, emotional And strong-willed(Fig. 5).

Rice. 5. Classification of mental processes

Cognitive mental processes play a large role in human life and activity. Thanks to them, a person reflects the objective world around him, cognizes it and, on the basis of this, navigates the environment and acts consciously.

In complex mental activity, various processes are connected and form a single whole, ensuring an adequate reflection of reality and the implementation of various types of activity.

Mental conditions - this is a relatively stable level of mental activity determined at a given time, which is manifested by increased or decreased activity of the individual. Every person experiences different mental states every day (Fig. 6). In one mental state, mental or physical work proceeds easily and productively, but otherwise it is difficult and ineffective. Mental states are of a reflex nature and arise under the influence of a certain environment, physiological factors, time, etc.

Rice. 6. Classification of mental states

Mental properties of a person are stable formations that provide a certain qualitative and quantitative level of activity and behavior typical for a given person. Each mental property is formed gradually in the process of reflection and is consolidated by practice. It is therefore the result of reflective and practical activity. The mental properties of a person are diverse (Fig. 7), and they need to be classified in accordance with the grouping of mental processes on the basis of which they are formed.

Rice. 7. Classification of mental properties

Cognitive mental processes are channels of our communication with the world. Incoming information about specific phenomena and objects undergoes changes and turns into an image. All human knowledge about the world around us is the result of the integration of individual knowledge obtained through cognitive mental processes. Each of these processes has its own characteristics and its own organization. But at the same time, proceeding simultaneously and harmoniously, these processes interact with each other imperceptibly for a person and, as a result, create for him a single, holistic, continuous picture of the objective world.

1. Feeling - the simplest cognitive mental process, during which there is a reflection of individual properties, qualities, aspects of reality, its objects and phenomena, connections between them, as well as internal states of the body that directly affect the human senses. Sensation is the source of our knowledge about the world and ourselves. All living organisms with a nervous system have the ability to sense sensations. Conscious sensations are characteristic only of living beings with a brain. Main role sensations is to quickly convey to the central nervous system information about the state of both the external and internal environment of the body. All sensations arise as a result of the influence of irritating stimuli on the corresponding sensory organs. In order for a sensation to arise, it is necessary that the stimulus causing it reaches a certain value, called absolute lower threshold of sensation. Each type of sensation has its own thresholds.

But the sense organs have the ability to adapt to changing conditions, so the thresholds of sensations are not constant and can change when moving from one environmental condition to another. This ability is called adaptation of sensations. For example, when moving from light to dark, the sensitivity of the eye to various stimuli changes tens of times. The speed and completeness of adaptation of various sensory systems is not the same: in tactile sensations, with smell, a high degree of adaptation is noted, and the lowest degree is with pain, since pain is a signal of a dangerous disruption in the functioning of the body, and rapid adaptation pain could threaten him with death.

The English physiologist C. Sherrington proposed a classification of sensations, presented in Fig. 8.

Exteroceptive sensations- these are sensations that arise when external stimuli influence human analyzers located on the surface of the body.

Proprioceptive sensations– these are sensations that reflect the movement and position of parts of the human body.

Interoceptive sensations– these are sensations that reflect the state of the internal environment of the human body.

According to the time of occurrence of sensations there are relevant And irrelevant.

For example, a sour taste in the mouth from lemon, a feeling of so-called “factual” pain in the amputated limb.

Rice. 8. Classification of sensations (according to Ch. Sherrington)

All sensations have the following characteristics:

¦ quality– an essential feature of sensations that allows one to distinguish one type from another (for example, auditory from visual);

¦ intensity– a quantitative characteristic of sensations, which is determined by the strength of the current stimulus;

¦ duration– a temporary characteristic of sensations, determined by the time of exposure to the stimulus.

2. Perception - this is a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena of the objective world with their direct impact at the moment on the senses. Only humans and some higher representatives of the animal world have the ability to perceive the world in the form of images. Together with the processes of sensation, perception provides direct orientation in the surrounding world. It involves identifying the main and most significant features from the complex of recorded features, while simultaneously abstracting from the unimportant ones (Fig. 9). Unlike sensations, which reflect individual qualities of reality, with the help of perception an integral picture of reality is created. Perception is always subjective, since people perceive the same information differently depending on abilities, interests, life experience, etc.

Rice. 9. Classification of types of perception

Let us consider perception as an intellectual process of successive, interconnected acts of searching for signs necessary and sufficient for the formation of an image:

Primary selection of a number of features from the entire flow of information and making a decision that they relate to one specific object;

Searching in memory for a complex of signs similar in sensations;

Assigning a perceived object to a specific category;

Search additional signs, confirming or refuting the correctness of the decision made;

The final conclusion about what object is perceived.

To the main properties of perception include: integrity– internal organic relationship between parts and the whole in the image;

objectivity– the object is perceived by a person as a separate physical body isolated in space and time;

generality– assignment of each image to a certain class of objects;

constancy– the relative constancy of the perception of the image, the preservation of its parameters by the object regardless of the conditions of its perception (distance, lighting, etc.);

meaningfulness– understanding the essence of the perceived object in the process of perception;

selectivity– preferential selection of some objects over others in the process of perception.

Perception happens externally directed(perception of objects and phenomena of the external world) and internally directed(perception of one’s own states, thoughts, feelings, etc.).

According to the time of occurrence, perception occurs relevant And irrelevant.

Perception may be wrong(or illusory), such as visual or auditory illusions.

The development of perception is very important for educational activities. Developed perception helps to quickly assimilate a larger amount of information with less energy expenditure.

3. Presentation - this is the mental process of reflecting objects and phenomena that are not currently perceived, but are recreated on the basis of previous experience. Ideas do not arise on their own, but as a result of practical activity.

Since the basis of ideas is past perceptual experience, the main classification of ideas is built on the basis of classifications of types of sensations and perceptions (Fig. 10).

Rice. 10. Classification of types of representations

Basic properties of views:

fragmentation– the presented image often lacks any of its features, sides, or parts;

instability(or impermanence)– the representation of any image sooner or later disappears from the field of human consciousness;

variability– when a person enriches himself with new experience and knowledge, a change in ideas about the objects of the surrounding world occurs.

4. Imagination - This is a cognitive mental process that consists in the creation of new images by a person based on his existing ideas. Imagination is closely related to human emotional experiences. Imagination differs from perception in that its images do not always correspond to reality; they may contain, to a greater or lesser extent, elements of fantasy and fiction. Imagination is the basis of visual-figurative thinking, which allows a person to navigate a situation and solve problems without direct practical intervention. It especially helps in cases where practical actions are either impossible, or difficult, or impractical.

Rice. 11. Classification of types of imagination

When classifying types of imagination, they proceed from the main characteristics - degrees volitional efforts And degree of activity(Fig. 11).

Recreating Imagination manifests itself when a person needs to recreate the idea of ​​an object based on its description (for example, when reading descriptions of geographical places or historical events, as well as when meeting literary characters).

Dream is an imagination aimed at a desired future. In a dream, a person always creates an image of what he wants, while in creative images the desire of their creator is not always embodied. A dream is a process of imagination that is not included in creative activity, that is, it does not lead to the immediate and direct receipt of an objective product in the form work of art, inventions, products, etc.

Imagination is closely related to creativity. Creative imagination characterized by the fact that a person transforms his existing ideas and creates a new image on his own - not according to a familiar image, but completely different from it. In practical activity, the phenomenon of imagination is primarily associated with the process artistic creativity in cases where the author is no longer satisfied with recreating reality using realistic methods. Turning to unusual, bizarre, unrealistic images makes it possible to enhance the intellectual, emotional and moral impact of art on a person.

Creation is an activity that generates new material and spiritual values. Creativity reveals the individual’s need for self-expression, self-actualization and the realization of one’s creative potential. In psychology, the following are distinguished: criteria for creative activity:

¦ creative activity is an activity that leads to obtaining a new result, a new product;

¦ since a new product (result) can be obtained by chance, the process of obtaining the product itself must be new ( new method, technique, method, etc.);

¦ the result of creative activity cannot be obtained using a simple logical conclusion or action according to a known algorithm;

¦ creative activity, as a rule, is aimed not so much at solving a problem already set by someone, but at independently seeing the problem and identifying new, original solutions;

¦ creative activity is usually characterized by the presence emotional experiences, preceding the moment of finding a solution;

¦ creative activity requires special motivation.

Analyzing the nature of creativity, G. Lindsay, K. Hull and R. Thompson tried to find out what interferes with the manifestation of creative abilities in humans. They discovered that interferes with creativity not only the insufficient development of certain abilities, but also the presence of certain personality traits, For example:

– a tendency to conformism, i.e. the desire to be like others, not to differ from the majority of people around them;

– fear of seeming stupid or funny;

– fear or reluctance to criticize others due to the idea of ​​criticism formed since childhood as something negative and offensive;

– excessive conceit, i.e. complete satisfaction with one’s personality;

– predominant critical thinking, i.e., aimed only at identifying shortcomings, and not at finding ways to eradicate them.

5. Thinking - this is a higher cognitive process, the generation of new knowledge, a generalized and indirect reflection of reality by a person in its essential connections and relationships. The essence of this cognitive mental process is the generation of new knowledge based on man’s transformation of reality. This is the most complex cognitive process highest form reflections of reality (Fig. 12).

Rice. 12. Classification of types of thinking

Subject-effective thinking is carried out during actions with objects with direct perception of the object in reality.

Visual-figurative thinking occurs when imagining object images.

Abstract-logical thinking is the result of logical operations with concepts. Thinking wears motivated And purposeful nature, all operations of the thought process are caused by the needs, motives, interests of the individual, his goals and objectives.

¦ Thinking is always individually. It makes it possible to understand the patterns of the material world, cause-and-effect relationships in nature and social life.

¦ The source of mental activity is practice.

¦ Physiological basis thinking is reflex activity brain

¦ Exclusively important feature thinking is an inextricable connection with speech. We always think in words, even if we don't say them out loud.

Active research into thinking has been conducted since the 17th century. Initially, thinking was actually identified with logic. All theories of thinking can be divided into two groups: the first are based on the hypothesis that a person has innate intellectual abilities that do not change over the course of life, the second - on the idea that mental abilities are formed and developed under the influence of life experience.

To the main mental operations include:

analysis– mental division of the integral structure of the reflected object into its constituent elements;

synthesis– reunification of individual elements into an integral structure;

comparison– establishing relations of similarity and difference;

generalization– identification of common features based on the combination of essential properties or similarities;

abstraction– highlighting any aspect of a phenomenon that in reality does not exist as an independent one;

specification– abstraction from general features and highlighting, emphasizing the particular, individual;

systematization(or classification)– mental distribution of objects or phenomena into certain groups, subgroups.

In addition to the types and operations listed above, there are thinking processes:

judgment– a statement containing a specific thought;

inference– a series of logically related statements leading to new knowledge;

definition of concepts– a system of judgments about a certain class of objects or phenomena, highlighting their most general characteristics;

induction– derivation of a particular judgment from a general one;

deduction– derivation of a general judgment from particular ones.

Basic quality characteristics of thinking are: independence, initiative, depth, breadth, speed, originality, criticality, etc.

The concept of intelligence is inextricably linked with thinking.

Intelligence - this is the totality of all mental abilities, providing a person with the opportunity to solve a variety of problems. In 1937, D. Wexler (USA) developed tests to measure intelligence. According to Wexler, intelligence is the global ability to act intelligently, think rationally, and cope well with life's circumstances.

L. Thurstone in 1938, exploring intelligence, identified its primary components:

counting ability– ability to operate with numbers and perform arithmetic operations;

verbal(verbal) flexibility– the ability to find the right words to explain something;

verbal perception– ability to understand oral and written language;

spatial orientation– the ability to imagine various objects in space;

memory;

reasoning ability;

quick perception of similarities and differences between objects.

What determines development of intelligence? Intelligence is influenced by both hereditary factors and condition environment. The development of intelligence is influenced by:

Genetic conditioning is the influence of hereditary information received from parents;

Physical and mental state mothers during pregnancy;

Chromosomal abnormalities;

Environmental living conditions;

Features of the child's nutrition;

Social status of the family, etc.

Attempts to create unified system“measurements” of human intelligence encounter many obstacles, since intelligence includes the ability to perform completely different-quality mental operations. The most popular is the so-called intelligence quotient(abbreviated as IQ), which allows one to correlate the level of an individual’s intellectual capabilities with the average indicators of his age and professional groups.

There is no consensus among scientists about the possibility of obtaining a real assessment of intelligence using tests, since many of them measure not so much innate intellectual abilities as knowledge, skills and abilities acquired during the learning process.

6. Mnemonic processes. Currently, in psychology there is no single, complete theory of memory, and the study of the phenomenon of memory remains one of the central tasks. Mnemonic processes, or memory processes, are studied by various sciences that consider the physiological, biochemical and psychological mechanisms of memory processes.

Memory- this is a form of mental reflection, which consists in consolidating, preserving and subsequently reproducing past experience, making it possible to reuse it in activity or return to the sphere of consciousness.

Among the first psychologists who began experimental studies of mnemonic processes was the German scientist G. Ebbinghaus, who, by studying the process of memorizing various word combinations, derived a number of laws of memorization.

Memory connects the subject’s past with his present and future - this is the basis of mental activity.

TO memory processes include the following:

1) memorization- a memory process that results in the consolidation of something new by associating it with something previously acquired; memorization is always selective - not everything that affects our senses is stored in memory, but only what is important to a person or aroused his interest and the greatest emotions;

2) conservation– the process of processing and retaining information;

3) playback– the process of retrieving stored material from memory;

4) forgetting– the process of getting rid of long-received, rarely used information.

One of the most important characteristics is memory quality, which is due to:

¦ speed of memorization(the number of repetitions required to retain information in memory);

speed of forgetting(the time during which remembered information is stored in memory).

There are several bases for classifying types of memory (Fig. 13): according to the nature of mental activity that prevails in the activity, according to the nature of the goals of the activity, according to the duration of consolidation and storage of information, etc.

Rice. 13. Classification of types of memory

Job different types memory obeys certain general laws.

Law of comprehension: The deeper the understanding of what is memorized, the easier it is fixed in memory.

Law of Interest: interesting things are remembered faster because less effort is spent on it.

Installation Law: Memorization occurs more easily if a person sets himself the task of perceiving the content and remembering it.

Law of first impression: The brighter the first impression of what is being remembered, the stronger and faster its memorization.

Law of Context: information is more easily remembered if it is correlated with other simultaneous impressions.

Law of volume of knowledge: The more extensive the knowledge on a certain topic, the easier it is to remember new information from this area of ​​knowledge.

Law of the volume of memorized information: The greater the amount of information for simultaneous memorization, the worse it is remembered.

Law of braking: any subsequent memorization inhibits the previous one.

Edge law: What is said (read) at the beginning and end of a series of information is better remembered; the middle of the series is remembered worse.

Law of repetition: repetition promotes better memory.

In psychology, in connection with the study of memory, you can find two terms that are very similar to each other - “mnemonic” and “mnemonic”, the meanings of which are different. Mnemic means "pertaining to memory" and mnemonic– “related to the art of memorization”, i.e. mnemonics These are memorization techniques.

The history of mnemonics goes back to Ancient Greece. Ancient Greek mythology speaks of Mnemosyne, the mother of nine muses, the goddess of memory and memories. Mnemonics received special development in the 19th century. in connection with the laws of associations that have received theoretical justification. For better memorization, various mnemonics techniques. Let's give examples.

Association method: The more diverse associations that arise when memorizing information, the easier the information is remembered.

Link method: combining information into a single, holistic structure using supporting words, concepts, etc.

Place method based on visual associations; Having clearly imagined the subject of memorization, you need to mentally combine it with the image of the place, which is easily retrieved from memory; for example, in order to remember information in a certain sequence, it is necessary to break it down into parts and associate each part with a specific place in a well-known sequence, for example, a route to work, the location of furniture in a room, the location of photographs on the wall, etc.

A well-known way to remember the colors of the rainbow is where the initial letter of each word in a key phrase is the first letter of the color word:

To every – To red

hunter - O range

and wants - and yellow

h nat – h green

G de – G blue

With goes– With blue

f adhan – f purple

7. Attention - this is a voluntary or involuntary direction and concentration of mental activity on any object of perception. The nature and essence of attention cause disagreements in psychological science; there is no consensus among psychologists regarding its essence. The difficulties in explaining the phenomenon of attention are caused by the fact that it is not found in a “pure” form, it is always “attention to something.” Some scientists believe that attention is not an independent process, but is only part of any other psychological process. Others believe that this is an independent process with its own characteristics. Indeed, on the one hand, attention is included in all psychological processes, on the other hand, attention has observable and measurable characteristics (volume, concentration, switchability, etc.) that are not directly related to other cognitive processes.

Attention is a necessary condition for mastering any type of activity. It depends on the individual typological, age and other characteristics of a person. Depending on the activity of the individual, three types of attention are distinguished (Fig. 14).

Rice. 14. Classification of types of attention

Involuntary attention– the simplest type of attention. It is often called passive, or forced, since it arises and is maintained independently of human consciousness.

Voluntary attention controlled by a conscious goal, connected with the will of a person. It is also called strong-willed, active or deliberate.

Post-voluntary attention is also purposeful in nature and initially requires volitional efforts, but then the activity itself becomes so interesting that it practically does not require volitional efforts from a person to maintain attention.

Attention has certain parameters and characteristics, which in many ways are a characteristic of human abilities and capabilities. TO basic properties of attention usually include the following:

concentration– this is an indicator of the degree of concentration of consciousness on a certain object, the intensity of connection with it; concentration of attention presupposes the formation of a temporary center (focus) of all human psychological activity;

intensity– characterizes the effectiveness of perception, thinking and memory in general;

sustainability– the ability to maintain high levels of concentration and intensity of attention for a long time; determined by the type of nervous system, temperament, motivation (novelty, significance of needs, personal interests), as well as external conditions of human activity;

volume– a quantitative indicator of objects that are in the focus of attention (for an adult – from 4 to 6, for a child – no more than 1–3); the amount of attention depends not only on genetic factors and on the capabilities of the individual’s short-term memory; the characteristics of perceived objects and the professional skills of the subject themselves also matter;

distribution– the ability to focus attention on several objects at the same time; in this case, several focuses (centers) of attention are formed, which makes it possible to perform several actions or monitor several processes simultaneously, without losing any of them from the field of attention;

switching – the ability to more or less easily and fairly quickly transition from one type of activity to another and concentrate on the latter.

Emotions and feelings are a person’s experiences of his relationship to objects and phenomena of reality, to what he knows, to himself and other people.

Emotion– this is a direct reflection of the existing relationship, an experience associated with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of needs. Emotions are involved in all mental processes in any human condition. They are able to anticipate events that have not yet occurred and can arise in connection with ideas about previously experienced or imagined situations.

Feeling- a more complex, established attitude of a person to what he knows and does. As a rule, a feeling includes a whole range of emotions. Feelings are unique to humans, they are socially determined, they give fullness and brightness to our perception, so emotionally charged facts are remembered longer. U different nations and in different historical eras feelings are expressed differently.

Emotions and feelings are inextricably linked with physiological state of the human body: with some, a person feels a surge of strength, an increase in energy, and with others - decline, stiffness. Emotions and feelings are always purely individual. Some of them are congenital, some are acquired during life as a result of training and upbringing. The more complexly organized a living being is, the higher the level on the evolutionary ladder it occupies, the richer the range of emotions and feelings that it is capable of experiencing. The oldest in origin, the simplest and most common emotional experiences among living beings are pleasure obtained from the satisfaction of organic needs, and displeasure if the corresponding needs remain unsatisfied.

In psychology, there are several basic, or fundamental, emotions: joy, surprise, suffering, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame.

Depending on the combination of speed, strength and duration of feelings, the following are distinguished: types of emotional states: mood, passion, affect, inspiration, stress, frustration (a state of disorganization of consciousness and personal activity due to severe nervous shock).

Emotions and feelings are inseparable from a person’s personality. Emotionally, people differ from each other in many ways: emotional excitability, duration, stability, strength and depth of the emotional experiences they experience, the dominance of positive or negative emotions.

Improving higher emotions and feelings means personal development person. This development can be carried out in several directions:

Inclusion of new objects, people, events, etc. into the emotional sphere;

Increasing the level of conscious control of your feelings;

The gradual inclusion into the moral sphere of increasingly higher values ​​and norms, such as conscience, decency, sense of duty, responsibility, etc.

So, the creation of mental images of the environment is carried out through cognitive mental processes, which are consolidated into a single, integral cognitive mental activity of a person. The image of the surrounding world is a complex mental formation, the formation of which involves various mental processes.