Feelings - simplest mental process, consisting in reflecting individual properties of objects and phenomena during their direct impact on the corresponding receptors

Receptors - these are sensitive nerve formations that perceive the influence of the external or internal environment and encode it in the form of a set of electrical signals. These signals then go to the brain, which decodes them. This process is accompanied by the emergence of the simplest psychic phenomena- sensations.

Some human receptors are combined into more complex formations - sense organs. A person has an organ of vision - the eye, an organ of hearing - the ear, an organ of balance - the vestibular apparatus, an organ of smell - the nose, an organ of taste - the tongue. At the same time, some receptors are not united into one organ, but are scattered over the surface of the entire body. These are receptors for temperature, pain and tactile sensitivity. Large quantity receptors are located inside the body: pressure receptors, chemical senses, etc. For example, receptors sensitive to the content of glucose in the blood provide a feeling of hunger. Receptors and sensory organs are the only channels through which the brain can receive information for subsequent processing.

All receptors can be divided into distant , which can perceive irritation at a distance (visual, auditory, olfactory) and contact (taste, tactile, pain).

Analyzer - the material basis of sensations

Sensations are the product of activity analyzers person. An analyzer is an interconnected complex of nerve formations that receives signals, transforms them, configures the receptor apparatus, transmits information to nerve centers, processes it, and deciphers it. I.P. Pavlov believed that the analyzer consists of three elements: sense organ , conductive path And cortical section . According to modern concepts, the analyzer includes at least five sections: receptor, conductor, tuning unit, filtering unit and analysis unit. Since the conductor section is essentially just an electrical cable that conducts electrical impulses, the most important role are performed by four sections of the analyzer. The feedback system allows you to make adjustments to the functioning of the receptor department when external conditions change (for example - fine tuning analyzer at different impact forces).

Thresholds of sensations

In psychology, there are several concepts of sensitivity threshold

Lower absolute sensitivity threshold defined as least strength stimulus that can cause sensation.

Human receptors are distinguished by very high sensitivity to an adequate stimulus. For example, the lower visual threshold is only 2-4 quanta of light, and the olfactory threshold is equal to 6 molecules of an odorous substance.

Stimuli with a strength less than the threshold do not cause sensations. They are called subliminal and are not realized, but can penetrate the subconscious, determining human behavior, as well as forming the basis for it dreams, intuition, unconscious desires. Research by psychologists shows that the human subconscious can react to very weak or very short stimuli that are not perceived by consciousness.

Upper absolute sensitivity threshold changes the very nature of sensations (most often to pain). For example, with a gradual increase in water temperature, a person begins to perceive not heat, but pain. The same thing happens with strong sound and or pressure on the skin.

Relative threshold (discrimination threshold) is the minimum change in the intensity of the stimulus that causes changes in sensations. According to the Bouguer-Weber law, the relative threshold of sensation is constant when measured as a percentage of the initial value of stimulation.

Bouguer-Weber law: “The discrimination threshold for each analyzer has

constant relative value":

DI / I = const, where I is the strength of the stimulus

Classificationsensations

1. Exteroceptive sensations reflect the properties of objects and phenomena of the external environment (“five senses”). These include visual, auditory, taste, temperature and tactile sensations. In fact, there are more than five receptors that provide these sensations, and the so-called “sixth sense” has nothing to do with it. For example, visual sensations arise when excited chopsticks(“twilight, black and white vision”) and cones(“daytime, color vision”). Temperature sensations in humans occur during separate excitation cold and heat receptors. Tactile sensations reflect the impact on the surface of the body, and they arise when excited or sensitive touch receptors in the upper layer of the skin, or with stronger exposure to pressure receptors in the deep layers of the skin.

2. Interoreceptive sensations reflect the state of internal organs. These include sensations of pain, hunger, thirst, nausea, suffocation, etc. Painful sensations signal damage and irritation of human organs and are a unique manifestation protective functions body. Intensity pain can be different, reaching in some cases great strength, which can even lead to a state of shock.

3. Proprioceptive sensations (muscular-motor). These are sensations that reflect the position and movements of our body. With the help of muscle-motor sensations, a person receives information about the position of the body in space, the relative position of all its parts, the movement of the body and its parts, the contraction, stretching and relaxation of muscles, the condition of joints and ligaments, etc. Muscle-motor sensations are complex. Simultaneous stimulation of receptors of different quality gives sensations of a unique quality: stimulation of receptor endings in the muscles creates a feeling of muscle tone when performing a movement; sensations muscle tension and efforts are associated with irritation of the nerve endings of the tendons; irritation of the receptors of the articular surfaces gives a sense of direction, shape and speed of movements. Many authors include in this same group of sensations the sensations of balance and acceleration, which arise as a result of stimulation of the receptors of the vestibular analyzer.

Properties of sensations

Sensations have certain properties:

·adaptation,

·contrast,

thresholds of sensations

·sensitization,

·consecutive images.

Feelings - the simplest mental process consisting of reflecting individual properties of objects and phenomena during their direct impact on the corresponding receptors

Receptors - these are sensitive nerve formations that perceive the influence of the external or internal environment and encode it in the form of a set of electrical signals. These signals then go to the brain, which decodes them. This process is accompanied by the emergence of the simplest mental phenomena - sensations.

Some human receptors are combined into more complex formations - sense organs. A person has an organ of vision - the eye, an organ of hearing - the ear, an organ of balance - the vestibular apparatus, an organ of smell - the nose, an organ of taste - the tongue. At the same time, some receptors are not united into one organ, but are scattered over the surface of the entire body. These are receptors for temperature, pain and tactile sensitivity. A large number of receptors are located inside the body: pressure receptors, chemical senses, etc. For example, receptors sensitive to the content of glucose in the blood provide a feeling of hunger. Receptors and sensory organs are the only channels through which the brain can receive information for subsequent processing.

All receptors can be divided into distant , which can perceive irritation at a distance (visual, auditory, olfactory) and contact (taste, tactile, pain).

Analyzer - the material basis of sensations

Sensations are the product of activity analyzers person. An analyzer is an interconnected complex of nerve formations that receives signals, transforms them, configures the receptor apparatus, transmits information to nerve centers, processes it, and deciphers it. I.P. Pavlov believed that the analyzer consists of three elements: sense organ ,conductive path And cortical section . According to modern concepts, the analyzer includes at least five sections: receptor, conductor, tuning unit, filtering unit and analysis unit. Since the conductor section is essentially just an electrical cable that conducts electrical impulses, the most important role is played by the four sections of the analyzer. The feedback system allows you to make adjustments to the operation of the receptor section when external conditions change (for example, fine-tuning the analyzer with different impact forces).

Thresholds of sensations

In psychology, there are several concepts of sensitivity threshold

Lower absolute sensitivity threshold defined as the lowest strength of stimulus that can cause sensation.

Human receptors are distinguished by very high sensitivity to an adequate stimulus. For example, the lower visual threshold is only 2-4 quanta of light, and the olfactory threshold is equal to 6 molecules of an odorous substance.

Stimuli with a strength less than the threshold do not cause sensations. They are called subliminal and are not realized, but can penetrate the subconscious, determining human behavior, as well as forming the basis for it dreams, intuition, unconscious desires. Research by psychologists shows that the human subconscious can react to very weak or very short stimuli that are not perceived by consciousness.

Upper absolute sensitivity threshold changes the very nature of sensations (most often to pain). For example, with a gradual increase in water temperature, a person begins to perceive not heat, but pain. The same thing happens with strong sound and or pressure on the skin.

Relative threshold (discrimination threshold) is the minimum change in the intensity of the stimulus that causes changes in sensations. According to the Bouguer-Weber law, the relative threshold of sensation is constant when measured as a percentage of the initial value of stimulation.

Bouguer-Weber law: “The discrimination threshold for each analyzer has

constant relative value":

DI/I = const, where I is the strength of the stimulus

Classification of sensations

1. Exteroceptive sensations reflect the properties of objects and phenomena of the external environment (“five senses”). These include visual, auditory, taste, temperature and tactile sensations. In fact, there are more than five receptors that provide these sensations, and the so-called “sixth sense” has nothing to do with it. For example, visual sensations arise when excited chopsticks(“twilight, black and white vision”) and cones(“daytime, color vision”). Temperature sensations in humans occur during separate excitation cold and heat receptors. Tactile sensations reflect the impact on the surface of the body, and they arise when excited or sensitive touch receptors in the upper layer of the skin, or with stronger exposure to pressure receptors in the deep layers of the skin.

2. Interoreceptive sensations reflect the state of internal organs. These include sensations of pain, hunger, thirst, nausea, suffocation, etc. Painful sensations signal damage and irritation of human organs and are a unique manifestation of the body’s protective functions. The intensity of pain varies, reaching great strength in some cases, which can even lead to a state of shock.

3. Proprioceptive sensations (muscular-motor). These are sensations that reflect the position and movements of our body. With the help of muscular-motor sensations, a person receives information about the position of the body in space, the relative position of all its parts, the movement of the body and its parts, the contraction, stretching and relaxation of muscles, the condition of joints and ligaments, etc. Muscular-motor sensations are complex. Simultaneous stimulation of receptors of different quality gives sensations of a unique quality: stimulation of receptor endings in the muscles creates a feeling of muscle tone when performing a movement; sensations of muscle tension and effort are associated with irritation of the nerve endings of the tendons; irritation of the receptors of the articular surfaces gives a sense of direction, shape and speed of movements. Many authors include in this same group of sensations the sensations of balance and acceleration that arise as a result of stimulation of the receptors of the vestibular analyzer.

Properties of sensations

Sensations have certain properties:

· adaptation,

· contrast,

thresholds of sensations

· sensitization,

· sequential images.

Imagination is a process of creative transformation of ideas that reflect reality, and the creation on this basis of new ideas that were not previously available. In addition to this, there are other definitions of imagination. For example, it can be defined as the ability to imagine an absent (at the moment or generally in reality) object, hold it in consciousness and mentally manipulate it. Sometimes the term “fantasy” is used as a synonym, which denotes both the process of creating something new and the final product of this process. Therefore, in psychology the term “imagination” has been adopted, denoting only the procedural side of this phenomenon. Imagination differs from perception in two ways: - the source of emerging images is not the external world, but memory; - it corresponds less to reality, since it always contains an element of fantasy. Functions of imagination: 1 Representation of reality in images, which makes it possible to use them when performing operations with imaginary objects. 2 Formation of an internal action plan (creating an image of a goal and finding ways to achieve it) in conditions of uncertainty. 3 Participation in the voluntary regulation of cognitive processes (memory management). 4 Regulation of emotional states (in auto-training, visualization, neuro-linguistic programming, etc.). 5 The basis for creativity - both artistic (literature, painting, sculpture) and technical (invention) 6 Creation of images that correspond to the description of an object (when a person tries to imagine something he has heard or read about). 7 Producing images that do not program, but replace activity (pleasant dreams replacing boring reality). Types of imagination: Depending on the principle underlying the classification, different types of imagination can be distinguished (Fig. 10.1):
Classification of imagination Characteristics of certain types of imagination Active imagination (intentional) - the creation by a person of his own free will of new images or ideas, accompanied by certain efforts (a poet is looking for a new artistic image to describe nature, an inventor sets a goal to create a new technical device, etc.). Passive imagination (unintentional) - in this case, a person does not set himself the goal of transforming reality, and images spontaneously arise on their own (this type of mental phenomena includes a wide range of phenomena, ranging from dreams to an idea that suddenly and unplannedly arose in the mind of the inventor). Productive (creative) imagination is the creation of fundamentally new ideas that do not have a direct model, when reality is creatively transformed in a new way, and not simply mechanically copied or recreated. Reproductive (recreating) imagination is the creation of an image of objects or phenomena according to their description, when reality is reproduced from memory as it is. Characteristics of certain types of imagination: Dreams can be classified as passive and involuntary forms of imagination. According to the degree of transformation of reality, they can be either reproductive or productive. Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov called dreams “an unprecedented combination of experienced impressions,” and modern science believes that they reflect the process of transferring information from operative to long-term memory. Another point of view is that in a person’s dreams many vital needs are expressed and satisfied, which, for a number of reasons, cannot be realized in real life.

Hallucination- passive and involuntary forms of imagination. According to the degree of transformation of reality, they are most often productive. Hallucinations are fantastic visions that have no obvious connection with the reality around a person. Hallucinations are usually the result of some kind of mental disorder or the effect of drugs or drugs on the brain.

Dreams in contrast to hallucinations, they are a completely normal mental state, which is a fantasy associated with a desire, most often a somewhat idealized future. This is a passive and productive type of imagination.

Dream It differs from a dream in that it is more realistic and more feasible. Dreams are a type of active forms of imagination. According to the degree of transformation of reality, dreams are most often productive. Features of a dream: - When dreaming, a person always creates an image of what he wants. - It is not directly included in human activity and does not immediately produce practical results. - A dream is aimed at the future, while some other forms of imagination work with the past. - The images that a person creates in his dreams are distinguished by emotional richness, bright character, and at the same time - a lack of understanding of specific ways to realize the dream. Dreams and daydreams occupy a fairly large part of a person's time, especially in youth. For most people, dreams are pleasant thoughts about the future. Some also experience disturbing visions that give rise to feelings of anxiety, guilt, and aggressiveness. Mechanisms for processing ideas into imaginary images. The creation of imaginary images is carried out using several methods: Agglutination- “folding”, “gluing” various parts that are not connected in everyday life. An example is the classic character of fairy tales - the centaur, the Serpent-Gorynych, etc.

Hyperbolization- a significant increase or decrease in an object or its individual parts, which leads to qualitatively new properties. An example is the following fairy-tale and literary characters: the giant Homeric Cyclops, Gulliver, Little Thumb. Accenting- highlighting a characteristic detail in the created image (friendly cartoon, caricature).

2.Perception – a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena in the totality of their properties and parts with their direct impact on the senses.

Perception is always a set of sensations, and sensation is an integral part of perception. However, perception is not a simple sum of sensations received from a particular object, but a qualitatively and quantitatively new stage of sensory cognition.

Scheme of formation of mental images during perception:

Physiological basis of perception is the coordinated activity of several analyzers, occurring with the participation of associative parts of the cerebral cortex and speech centers.

In the process of perception, they are formed perceptual images , with which attention, memory and thinking are subsequently operated. An image represents the subjective form of an object; it is a product of the inner world of a given person.

For example, the perception of an apple consists of the visual sensation of a green circle, the tactile sensation of a smooth, hard and cool surface, and the olfactory sensation of the characteristic apple smell. Added together, these three sensations will give us the opportunity to perceive a whole object - an apple.

Perception must be distinguished from submissions, that is, the mental creation of images of objects and phenomena that once influenced the body, but are absent at the moment.

In the process of forming an image, it is influenced attitudes, interests, needs, And motives personality. Thus, the image that appears at the sight of the same dog will be different for a random passer-by, an amateur dog breeder and a person who has recently been bitten by a dog. Their perceptions will differ in completeness and emotionality. A huge role in perception is played by a person’s desire to perceive this or that object, the activity of its perception.

Properties of perception

Human perceptions differ from sensations in a number of specific properties. The main properties of perception are:

· constancy,

· integrity.

· selectivity,

· objectivity,

· apperception,

· meaningfulness,

Types of perception

There are three main classifications of perception processes - according to the form of existence of matter, according to the leading modality and according to the degree of volitional control.

According to the first classification , there are three types of perception

Perception of space- this is the perception of the distance to objects or between them, their relative position, their volume, distance and direction in which they are located.

Motion perception- this is a reflection in time of changes in the position of objects or the observer himself in space.

Perception of time is the least studied area of ​​psychology. So far it is only known that the assessment of the duration of a time period depends on what events (from the point of view of a particular person) it was filled with. If time was filled with many interesting events, then time passes quickly, and if there were few significant events, then time passes slowly. When remembering, the opposite phenomenon occurs - a period of time filled with interesting things seems to us longer than an “empty” one. The material basis for human perception of time is the so-called “cellular clock” - the fixed duration of some biological processes at the levels of individual cells, by which the body checks the duration of large periods of time.

Second classification of perception (according to the leading modality) includes visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, tactile perception, as well as the perception of one’s body in space.

In accordance with this classification in neuro-linguistic programming (one of the areas of modern psychology), all people are usually divided into visual, auditory and kinesthetic learners. For visual learners, the visual type of perception predominates, for auditory learners – auditory, and for kinesthetic learners – tactile, gustatory and temperature.

3. Memory - the ability (of a living system to record the fact of interaction with the environment, save the result of this interaction in the form of experience and use it in behavior.

memory is a complex mental process consisting of several private processes connected with each other. Memory is necessary for a person. It allows him to accumulate, save and subsequently use personal life experience. Human memory is not just some single function. There are many different processes involved. There are three absolutely various types memory: 1) as a “direct imprint” of sensory information; 2) short-term memory; 3) long-term memory.

Direct imprint of sensory information . This system maintains a fairly accurate and complete picture of the world perceived by the senses. The duration of saving the picture is very short - 0.1-0.5 s. Close your eyes, then open them for a moment and close them again. Watch how the clear, clear picture you see persists for a while and then slowly disappears.

Short-term memory holds a different type of material. In this case, the retained information is not a complete representation of events that occurred at the sensory level, but a direct interpretation of these events. For example, if someone says a phrase in front of you, you will remember not so much its constituent sounds as the words. Usually only 5-6 words are remembered. By making a conscious effort to repeat the material over and over again, you can retain it in your short-term memory for an indefinite period of time. Immediate imprints of sensory memory cannot be repeated; they are stored only for a few tenths of a second and there is no way to extend them.

Long-term memory . There is a clear and compelling difference between the memory of an event that just happened and events of the distant past. Long-term memory is the most important and most complex of memory systems. The capacity of the first named memory systems is very limited: the first consists of a few tenths of seconds, the second - several storage units. The capacity of long-term memory is practically limitless. Anything held for more than a few minutes must be in the long-term memory system. The main source of difficulties associated with long-term memory is the problem of retrieval of information.

IN memory There are three processes: memorization(entering information into memory), conservation(hold) and playback These processes are interconnected. Organization of memory influences retention. The quality of the save determines the playback.

The process of memorization can proceed as an instantaneous imprinting - imprinting. The state of imprinting in a person occurs at a moment of high emotional stress. Its connection with periods of sensitive development of mental functions is likely. When the same stimulus is repeated many times, it is imprinted without a conscious attitude towards it. The intention to retain material in memory characterizes voluntary memorization.

Organized repetition of material for the purpose of memorizing it is called memorization. A significant increase in learning ability falls between the ages of 8 and 10 years and especially increases from 11 to 13 years. From the age of 13, there is a relative decline in the rate of memory development. New growth begins at age 16. At the age of 20-25 years, the memory of a person engaged in mental work reaches its highest level.

According to the mechanism they are distinguished logical And mechanical memorization. According to the result - verbatim And semantic.

The focus on memorization alone does not give the desired effect. Its absence can be compensated for by high forms of intellectual activity, even if this activity itself was not aimed at memorization. And only the combination of these two components creates a solid foundation for maximally successful memorization and makes memorization productive.

What is best remembered is what arises as an obstacle or difficulty in activity. Memorizing material given in ready-made form is carried out with less success than memorizing material found independently during active activity. What is remembered, even involuntarily, but in the process of active intellectual activity, is retained in memory more firmly than what was remembered voluntarily.

The result of memorization is higher when relying on visual, figurative material. However, memorization productivity when relying on words increases with age than when relying on pictures. Therefore, the difference in the use of these and other supports decreases with age. When you come up with your own, verbal supports become a more effective means of memorization than ready-made pictures.

In a broad sense, the support of memorization can be everything with which we associate what we remember or what itself “pops up” in us as associated with it. The semantic support is a certain point, i.e. something short, compressed, serving as a support for some broader content that replaces it. The most developed form of semantic support points are theses, as a brief expression of the main idea of ​​each section. More often, section titles serve as a reference point.

The material is remembered better and forgotten less in cases where key points were highlighted during the memorization process. The strength of a strong point depends on how deeply and thoroughly we understand the content of the section thanks to it. The semantic reference point is the reference point of understanding. For us, the most important thing is not the supporting points, but the semantic activity that is necessary for highlighting.

4. Thinking - This highest form cognitive activity of a person, a socially conditioned mental process of indirect and generalized reflection of reality, the process of searching and discovering something essentially new.

The main features of the thinking process are:

Generalized and indirect reflection of reality.

Connection with practical activities.

Inextricable connection with speech.

The presence of a problematic situation and the absence of a ready answer.

Generalized reflection in reality means that in the process of thinking we turn to that common thing that unites a similar number of objects and phenomena. For example, when we talk about furniture, we mean by this word tables, chairs, sofas, armchairs, cabinets, etc.

Indirect reflection reality can be seen in the arithmetic problem of adding several apples or in determining the speed of two trains moving towards each other. “Apples”, “trains” are just symbols, conventional images, behind which there should not be specific fruits or compounds.

Thinking arises from practical activities, from sensory knowledge, but goes far beyond its limits. In turn, the correctness of thinking is tested during practice.

Thinking is inextricably linked with speech. Thinking operates with concepts, which in their form are words, but, in essence, are the result of mental operations. In turn, as a result of thinking, verbal concepts can be clarified.

Thinking takes place only when there is problematic situation. If you can get by with the old ways of acting, then thinking is not required.

1.2 Qualitative characteristics of thinking

Thinking, like other human cognitive processes, has a number of specific qualities. These qualities are present to varying degrees in different people, and are important to varying degrees in solving different problem situations. Some of these qualities are more significant when solving theoretical problems, while others are more significant when solving practical issues.

Examples of qualities (properties) of thinking:

Quick thinking - the ability to find the right solutions under time pressure

Flexibility of thinking - the ability to change the intended plan of action when the situation changes or the criteria for the right decision change

Depth of thinking - the degree of penetration into the essence of the phenomenon being studied, the ability to identify significant logical connections between the components of the problem

1.3 Thinking and intelligence

Intelligence- the totality of a person’s mental abilities that ensure the success of his cognitive activity.

In a broad sense, this term is understood as the totality of all cognitive functions of an individual (perception, memory, imagination, thinking), and in a narrow sense - his mental abilities.

In psychology there is a concept structures of intelligence However, the understanding of this structure varies widely depending on the views of a particular psychologist. For example, the famous scientist R. Cattell identified two sides in the structure of intelligence: dynamic, or fluid ( "fluid"), and static or crystallized ( “crystallized”). According to his concept, fluid intelligence manifests itself in tasks whose solution requires quick and flexible adaptation to a new situation. It depends more on the person's genotype. Crystallized intelligence is more dependent on the social environment, and is manifested when solving problems that require relevant skills and experience.

You can use other models of the structure of intelligence, for example, highlighting the following components in it:

·Ability to learn (quickly acquire new knowledge, skills and abilities);

·Ability to successfully operate with abstract symbols and concepts;

·Ability to solve practical problems and problematic situations.

·The amount of available long-term and RAM memory.

Accordingly, intelligence tests include several groups of tasks. These are tests that reveal the amount of knowledge in a certain area, tests that evaluate a person’s intellectual development in connection with his biological age, tests that determine a person’s ability to solve problem situations and intellectual tasks. In addition, there are special intelligence tests, for example, abstract-logical or spatial thinking, verbal intelligence, etc. The most famous intelligence tests include:

Stanford-Binet test: assesses the child's intellectual development.

Wechsler test: assesses the verbal and nonverbal components of intelligence.

Raven's test: nonverbal intelligence.

Eysenck test (IQ)– determines the general level of intelligence development

When studying intelligence in psychology, there are two approaches: intellectual abilities are innate or intellectual abilities develop in the process of individual development, as well as their intermediate version.

For a specialist in the field physical culture and sports, it is useful to know not only about the above types of sensations, but also about the sensations that largely determine a person’s motor culture - static-dynamic and kinesthetic.

Stato-dynamic sensations determine the maintenance of balance necessary for normal human activity (labor, sports and other types). They are caused by changes in the parameters of the action of gravitational forces on the static-dynamic analyzer as a result of changes in body position or acceleration. Stato-dynamic sensations also determine a person’s orientation in the reality around him.

The static-dynamic analyzer is represented from the position of the peripheral part by the vestibular apparatus, consisting of the vestibule and semicircular canals located in the inner ear. They contain two groups of receptors: hair cells (in the semicircular canals) - form information about acceleration and general movement, and the otolith complex (in the vestibule of the inner ear) - forms information about the position of the body in space and performs a primary analysis of this position in relation to the plane of support.

The conduction section is represented by the vestibular nerve, going from the vestibular receptors to the subcortical sections of the analyzer in the brain (to the hindbrain).

The central section is represented by the nuclei of the cerebellum, oculomotor center and formations in the reticular formation. The cerebral cortex regulates vestibular function conditionally. Therefore, the static-dynamic analyzer is functionally connected with the work of other analyzers (auditory, visual, kinesthetic and others).

Kinaesthetic sensations are caused by a mechanical effect on the receptor apparatus of the analyzer when the tension of muscle tissue and the relative position of the joints change. The importance of kinesthetic sensations is difficult to overestimate. They allow you to control a person’s movements and actions, generate information about the performance of an organ and its fatigue (about the state of muscle tissue), perform a partial analysis of time and space, form the processes of active touch, and have other capabilities.

In special types of activities (for example, sports activities), selective (fractional) analysis of information in kinesthetic sensations allows:

Divide the integral activity into its component parts and reflect the position of individual parts of the body relative to each other (draw up a “body diagram”);

Reflect the analysis of individual passive movements relative to active ones;

Analyze and synthesize a pattern of active movements in a pattern of a holistic motor act reflected in sensation.

In the process of individual development of a person, the specificity of the functioning of kinesthetic sensations also changes. From 8 to 18 years, their information capacity doubles, and resolution reaches its peak by the period of 11-15 years. Therefore, this age is the most productive for mastering complexly coordinated sports. Different sports have different requirements for motor culture a person, expressed in the characteristics of the nature of movements, their shape, amplitude, direction and other parameters. Kinaesthetic sensations are part of motor (including sports) abilities that allow you to quickly and efficiently master various forms motor culture.

The kinesthetic analyzer is represented by the peripheral section of centripetal nerve endings or muscle-articular receptors. There are three groups of such receptors: fusiform (Ruffini endings); tendon (Golgi apparatus) and connective (Golgi-Mazzoni bodies). These are specialized nerve cells, converting the energy of mechanical pressure into a nerve impulse carrying relevant information. These receptors are located on the surface of the joint capsules and tendon joints.

The conduction section is represented by nerve pathways running from the receptors through the spinal nodes to the subcortical zones of the brain.

The central part of the analyzer consists of scattered elements and a core. The nucleus is located in the motor zone of the medulla oblongata (pons), in the midbrain and visual thalamus, and scattered elements are contained in the cerebral cortex. When the core is damaged, the analysis functions are activated in the scattered elements of the analyzer. Such a complex structure of analyzers increases their functional reliability and makes it possible to compensate for a certain range of violations.

The diseases listed in Table 1 are extremely widespread in the population. In Russia there are more than 1 million patients who have suffered a stroke. Injuries and consequences of traumatic damage to the nervous system occupy second or third place among the causes of loss of working capacity among people under 50 years of age. Spinal diseases and associated pain syndromes affect 30–80% of men and women of different age groups. According to epidemiological studies, the prevalence of episodic tension-type headache in the population reaches 20–38%.
“Central” hypertonicity, caused by damage to the pyramidal tracts, is rarely accompanied by severe painful sensations, but it always leads to gross violations motor functions. For vascular diseases of the brain and spinal cord, the consequences of traumatic injuries “spasticity” persists for a long time and leads to muscular dystrophies, secondary changes in joints, disorders of the statics of the spine. All this greatly complicates rehabilitation treatment.
In the pathogenesis of muscular dystonia in hereditary degenerative diseases, extrapyramidal disorders associated with dopamine metabolism occupy a central place. As a rule, muscle hypertonicity is unstable and is part of the structure of various hyperkinesis.
Clinical manifestations of reflex dystonic syndromes in pathologies of the musculoskeletal system often have a very complex pathogenesis. Their heterogeneity in relation to the segmental, propriospinal, stem and subcortical levels of the nervous system organization requires in some cases in-depth diagnosis and differentiated treatment. Back pain (in particular pain in the lumbar region - lumbodynia) remains the most common manifestation of pathology of the musculoskeletal system 3,5,9].
The most common causes of lumbodynia are pathological changes in the spine, muscles (myofascial syndrome) or pelvic organs and abdominal cavity.
The pathogenesis of back pain can be represented as a vicious circle involving nerve and muscle formations. Painful impulses cause excitation of the segmental apparatus of the spinal cord, which leads to an increase in muscle tone, a change in body posture and increases pain. The most significant vertebrogenic causes of back pain are caused by root ischemia (discogenic radicular syndrome, discogenic radiculopathy) and various degenerative changes in the spine. Less commonly, back pain is associated with spondylolisthesis, nonfusion of the vertebral arches, and developmental anomalies of the lumbosacral spine (lumbarization and sacralization).
Vertebrogenic reflex-muscular syndromes occur during the life of almost every person; compression syndromes develop much less frequently and in most cases are associated with damage to the intervertebral discs.
Another common cause of back pain is myofascial pain, caused by the formation of so-called trigger points in the muscles and/or associated fascia. The occurrence of trigger zones is also associated with muscular dystonia.
Among tonic disorders, psychogenic reflex-muscular syndromes occupy a special place. The pathogenetic essence of such syndromes is due to the stable connection between emotional stress and the mechanism of its implementation - muscular system. Long-term muscle dystonia is observed in depression, chronic stress. Emotional disorders also reduce the threshold for pain perception. An example of emotionally dependent pain is tension headache (TTH). TTH is usually of moderate intensity, pressing or squeezing in nature. Chronicity is very often observed with tension-type headache - almost constant feelings of heaviness and tension can persist for weeks, which leads to a significant decrease in working capacity.
Thus, the relevance of the problem of muscle tone disorders and correction of spastic syndromes is due to their extremely high prevalence in the population and participation in the pathogenesis of diseases that are heterogeneous in nature.
Consequently, the treatment of muscle-tonic syndromes involves two main directions: treatment of the disease in which the syndrome of increased muscle tone manifests itself, and the actual correction of hypertonicity, which can significantly reduce the clinical manifestations of the disease and expand the possibilities of recovery programs. Of course, the best results can be obtained through complex therapy, which includes massage and physical therapy, psycho- and physiotherapy. Pharmacotherapy in complex treatment clinical syndromes associated with impaired muscle tone occupies an important place. The purpose of drug exposure may be sources of pain stimulation (for example, pathological processes of the musculo-ligamentous apparatus), functional or structural changes in the nervous system (for example, the segmental apparatus of the spinal cord), or muscles. In some cases, the use psychotropic drugs(antidepressants, neuroleptics) allows you to obtain a stable therapeutic effect in psychogenic reflex-muscular syndromes. However, the central place in drug therapy occupied by muscle relaxants.
One of the modern muscle relaxants that is widely used in the treatment of all types of muscle-tonic syndromes is Sirdalud. The drug reduces increased muscle tone in both the a- and g-motor systems, and has a direct and indirect analgesic effect. Direct - due to the antinociceptive effect through the non-opioid neuronal system; indirect - due to the antispasmodic effect. A fairly wide range of effective doses (from 2 to 36 mg per day) allows the drug to be used for short and long courses of treatment, alone or in combination with other drugs. In some cases, large doses of the drug may be used. The only side effect that may limit the use of Sirdalud is related to its sedative effect. The sedative effect when taking the drug manifests itself quite individually and quite rarely, but its possibility must be taken into account. At the beginning of treatment, you can prescribe 2-4 mg of the drug at bedtime and, if well tolerated, increase the dose to the required value. The optimal daily dose, as a rule, does not exceed 4–8 mg, only in some cases larger dosages are required. The intensity and duration of treatment with Sirdalud depends on the disease. Approximate treatment periods and daily doses for various diseases are presented in Table 2.
The use of the drug in the early recovery period after a stroke reduces the likelihood of developing contractures and significantly facilitates subsequent rehabilitation. Sirdalud in combination with vasoactive drugs and nootropics for multiple sclerosis facilitates urination and increases range of motion. The inclusion of Sirdalud in the complex therapy of extrapyramidal disorders in parkinsonism reduces tremors and increases the motor capabilities of patients. Heavy pain syndromes, characteristic of damage to large nerve trunks, require large doses of Sirdalud and combination therapy. In these cases, the dose of the drug is increased to 8–12 mg per day and combined with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). It has been established that Sirdalud reduces the side effects of NSAIDs and enhances their analgesic effect. In some cases, chronic pain syndromes require the inclusion of antidepressants in the treatment regimen. A monthly course of treatment with Sirdalud for chronic tension headaches is effective in 90% of cases.
Thus Sirdalud is effective drug for the treatment of painful muscular-tonic syndromes and clinical manifestations associated with increased muscle tone in diseases of the central nervous system. A wide range of therapeutic doses of the drug allows Sirdalud to be included in the complex therapy of both acute and chronic conditions in patients varying degrees gravity.

Literature
1. Skvortsova V.I., Chazova I.E., Stakhovskaya L.V. Secondary prevention of stroke. –M.: PAGRI, 2002.–120 p.
2. Coward D.M. Pharmacology and mechanisms of action of tizanidine (Sirdalud). /In: Spasticity: The current status of research and treatment. Ed. by M. Emre, R. Benecke. –Carnforth etc.: The Parthenon Publishing Group, 1989. –P.131–140
3. Parfenov V. A., Yakhno N. N. Neurology in general medical practice. – M., 2001.
4. Diseases of the nervous system. A guide for doctors/Ed. N.N.Yakhno, D.R.Shtulman, P.V.Melnichuk. – M.: Medicine, 1995. –656 p.
5. Kamchatnov P.R., Chugunov A.V., Umarova Kh.Ya., Volovets S.A. Therapy of acute vertebrogenic pain syndrome//Consilium medicum. 2005. –T. 7. –S. 125–132.
6. Berry H., Hutchinson D.R. Tizanidine and ibuprofen in acute low–back pain: Results of a double–blind multicentre study in general practice. //J. Intern. Med. Res. –1988. –Vol.16. –R.83–91.
7. Filatova E.G., Solovyova A.D., Danilov A.B Treatment of tension headaches // Journal of Neurology. and a psychiatrist. 1996, 4, 21–25.
8. Coward D.M. Tizanidine: Neuropharmacology and mechanism of action. //Neurology. –1994. –Vol.44., N.11 (Suppl.9). –P.S6–S11
9. Zavalishin I.A., Golovkin V.I. (ed). Multiple sclerosis. Selected issues of theory and practice. M.: “Children's Book”, 2000. – 640 p.
10. Bokonjic R. Headache. M., 1984; 312.
11. Vein A.M., Kolosova O.A., Yakovlev N.A., Karimov T.K. Headache. M., 1984, p. 285.
12. Solovyova A.D., Filatova E.G., Voznesenskaya T.G., Kanavets E.V. Clinic, diagnosis and therapy of headaches in patients with hypothalamic syndrome. Travel JG, Simons DG. Myofascial pain. M., “Medicine”, 1989.
13. Davies J. et al Selectiv inhibition of responses of feline dorsal horn neurons to noxious cutaneus stimuli by tizianidine (DS 103–282) and noradrenaline: involvement of &2–adrenoreceptors. Neuroscience (1986) 673–682.
14. Freitag F.G. Preventative treatment for migraine and tension–type headaches: do drugs having effects on muscle spasm and tone have a role? CNS Drugs. 2003; 17(6): 373–81.
15. Lipton R.B., Stewart W.F., Diamond S. et al. Prevalence and burden of migraine in the United States: results from the American Migraine Study II. Headache 2001; 41: 646–657.
16. Shimomura T., Awaki E., Kowa H., Takahashi K. Treatment of tension-type headache with tizanidine hydrochloride: its efficacy and relationship to the plasma MHPG concentration. Headache 1991; 31:601–604.

Sensitivity is one of the phylogenetically ancient functions of the nervous system. In the process of evolution, it arose as a means of adequate contact of the organism with the environment, as the basis of a feedback mechanism. The sense organs provide the perception of irritations, conduction and processing of information that comes from the environment, all organs and tissues of the body. Signal processing is carried out using various nerve formations. Part of the information that is perceived by our senses is transformed into a sensation, an awareness of the really existing external world. Another part of the nerve impulses, which mostly come from normally functioning internal organs, although perceived by the brain, are not realized by the person at a certain time. All perceptions of the influence of the surrounding and internal environment in physiology are usually designated by the term “reception”.

Sensitivity is part of the broad concept of reception; Sensitivity includes only that part of reception that is perceived by receptors and recognized by the cortex.

All nervous elements that provide perception, conduction and processing of information belong to sensory systems (from the Latin sensus - sensation) or to the system of analyzers according to I.P. Pavlova. They perceive and process stimuli of different modalities.

The analyzer is a functional system that includes receptors, afferent pathways and the corresponding area of ​​the cerebral cortex.

The cortical end of the analyzer is the primary projection zones of the cortex, which have a characteristic somatotopic principle of structure. The analyzer provides perception, conduction and processing of the same type of nerve impulses.

Analyzers are divided into two subgroups: external, or exteroceptive, and internal, or interoceptive.

External analyzers analyze information about the state and changes that occur in the environment. These include visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory and an analyzer of superficial types of sensitivity. Internal analyzers process information about changes in the internal environment of the body, for example, the state cardiovascular system, digestive canal and other organs. The internal analyzers include the motor analyzer, thanks to which the brain constantly perceives signals about the state of the muscular-articular system. It plays an important role in the mechanisms of movement regulation.

Receptors are specialized peripheral sensitive formations that are capable of perceiving any changes inside the body, as well as on the external surface of the body, and transmitting these irritations in the form of nerve impulses. In other words, receptors are capable of converting one form of energy into another without twisting the content of information. Stimuli from the environment or internal environment, transforming into a nervous process, enter the brain in the form of nerve impulses.

Depending on location, and also depending on functional features receptors are divided into extero-, proprio- and interoreceptors.

Exteroceptors are divided into contact receptors, which perceive irritations during direct contact with it (pain, temperature, tactile, etc.), and distance receptors, which perceive irritations from sources located at a distance (sound, light).

Proprioceptors perceive stimulation that occurs in deep tissues(muscles, periosteum, tendons, ligaments, articular surfaces) and carry information about muscle tone, the position of the body and its parts in space, and the volume of voluntary movements. This determined the name “muscular-joint sense”, or “sense of position and movement (kinesthetic sensation)”. Proprioceptors also include labyrinthine receptors, which provide the body with information regarding the position and movements of the head.

Interoreceptors perceive a variety of irritations from internal organs and blood vessels. Their main role is to ensure admission to the central nervous system information about changes in the internal state of the body. Most interoreceptors are multimodal. They respond to chemical (chemoreceptors) and mechanical stimulation (baroreceptors), temperature changes (thermoreceptors), pain (nociceptors) and are related to the autonomic nervous system.

Each type of receptor reacts only to its specific type of stimulation. Thanks to this specialization of receptors, a primary analysis of external stimuli is carried out at the level of the peripheral endings of afferent nerve fibers.

The largest number of receptors are localized in the skin. There are mechanoreceptors (react to touch, pressure), thermoreceptors (perceive cold, heat) and nociceptors (perceive pain).

Skin receptors include free nerve endings of sensory nerves and encapsulated terminal formations. The simplest in structure are the free nerve endings of the dendrites of sensory neurons. They are located between epidermal cells and perceive painful stimuli. Merkel and Meissner tactile corpuscles respond to touch. Pressure and vibration are perceived by the lamellar corpuscles of Vater-Pacini. Krause's flasks are cold receptors, and Ruffini's corpuscles are heat receptors.

Receptors are also located in deeper tissues: muscles, tendons, joints. The most important of the muscle receptors are the neuromuscular spindles. They respond to passive muscle stretching and are responsible for the stretch reflex, or myotatic reflex. Tendons contain Golgi receptors, which also respond to stretching, but their sensitivity threshold is higher. Special receptors in the body that perceive pleasure are benereceptors.

The receptors of the visual and auditory analyzers, which are concentrated in the retina of the eye and in the inner ear, have the most complex structure. The complex morphological structure of these receptors affects their function: for example, retinal ganglion cells respond to electromagnetic radiation of a certain frequency spectrum, auditory ones - to mechanical vibrations of the air environment. However, this specificity is relative. The sensation of light occurs not only when a quantum of electromagnetic radiation enters the eye, but also in the event of mechanical irritation of the eye.

Thus, at the receptor level, primary information processing is carried out, which consists of recognizing the modality of the stimulus. This processing ends with the formation of nerve impulses, which enter the higher parts of the central nervous system with a certain frequency.

Impulses that arise in the receptor apparatus are conducted to the nerve centers by sensory fibers with at different speeds. The German anatomist Gasser (J. Gasseri, 18th century) divided sensory fibers, depending on their structural and functional characteristics, into three groups: covered with a thick layer of myelin, thin and unmyelinated. The speed of nerve impulse conduction by these three groups of fibers is not the same. Fibers with a thick myelin sheath, or group A fibers, conduct impulses at a speed of 40-60 m per 1 s; fibers with a thin myelin sheath, or group B fibers, at a speed of 10-15 m per 1 s; unmyelinated, or C-fibers, at a speed of 0.5-1.5 m per 1 s.

Group A fibers with a high impulse conduction speed are conductors of tactile and deep sensitivity.

Group B fibers with an average impulse conduction speed are conductors of localized pain and tactile sensitivity.

Group C fibers, which conduct impulses slowly, are conductors pain sensitivity, predominantly diffuse, non-localized.

Classification of sensitivity. There is a distinction between general (simple) and complex sensitivity. General sensitivity, taking into account the localization of receptors, is divided into exteroceptive, or superficial (skin and mucous membranes), proprioceptive, or deep (muscles, connections, joints), and interoceptive (internal organs).

Exteroceptive, or superficial, sensitivity includes pain, temperature (heat and cold) and tactile. Proprioceptive sensitivity includes the sensation of passive and active movements (muscular-articular sense), vibration sensation, sense of pressure and mass, kinesthetic sense - determining the direction of movement of the skin fold. General, or simple, sensitivity is directly related to the function of individual receptors and analyzers.

Complex types of sensitivity are caused by combined activities different types receptors and cortical sections of the analyzers: a sense of localization of the injection, with the help of which the location of the applied irritation is determined; stereognosis - the ability to recognize objects by feeling them; two-dimensional spatial sensation - the patient recognizes provided closed eyes what figure, number or letter is written on the skin; discrimination - the ability to perceive separately two simultaneously applied irritations at close range. Complex types of sensitivity do not have separate analyzers; they are carried out general types sensitivity.

Interoceptive is the sensitivity that occurs in the event of irritation of internal organs, walls blood vessels. As already noted, in normal conditions impulses from internal organs are practically not realized. During irritation of interoceptors, pain of varying intensity and a feeling of discomfort occur.

In the process of evolution, sensory systems experience improvement, which predetermines the emergence of a special sensation: vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch.

In the clinic, another classification has become widespread, which is based on biogenetic data. In accordance with these ideas, protopathic and epicritic sensitivity are distinguished.

Protopathic sensitivity is phylogenetically more ancient. It serves to perceive and conduct strong nociceptive stimuli, which can cause tissue destruction or threaten the life of the body. These irritations are mostly non-localized and cause a generalized reaction. The center of protopathic sensitivity is the thalamus. Therefore, this system also has the name of vital, nociceptive, thalamic, unmitigated feeling.

Epicritic sensitivity is a phylogenetically new type of sensitivity. It provides fine quantitative and qualitative differentiation of irritations, their localization, which allows the body to accurately navigate the environment and adequately respond to irritation. Epicritic sensitivity is caused by sensations that arise in the cerebral cortex. It is here that subjective sensations of pain are formed. Therefore, this sensitivity system is called epicritic, cortical, gnostic, it is capable of softening the sensation of pain.