The main reason for the low level of consciousness is undoubtedly the insufficient development of the “I”. Its development is hampered by many different factors, which we will consider below. Let's remember how we defined “I”:
“I” is the totality of everything that a person has learned as a result of conscious deep reflection. The “I” of a person, in contrast to “we,” is everything that belongs to the essence of a person.
Let's call a person with a developed and mature “I” an INDIVIDUALE, and a person who has only “we” - an ANTI-INDIVIDUALE.
Let's trace a number of correspondences.
Conscious deep learning - "I" individual - high level of consciousness.
Unconscious learning - "we" anti-individual - low level of consciousness.
The anti-individual is a natural consequence of a person's hypnotic submission to the group's behavioral patterns. As a result of a hedonistic attitude to life, a person avoids thinking about what goes beyond his usual ideas. It is much easier to submit to the will of the crowd and accept its tastes, habits and customs than to create your own value system. The anti-individual meekly submits to the dictates of the majority and loses psychological autonomy. Thus, he turns into a cog in a giant machine. The anti-individual is lazy to think, does not like to think deeply or analyze. His thoughts are disordered. He is unable to form his own ideas about life, about human relationships and about God. He does not hesitate to swallow the dogmas of various religions, philosophies or political movements. He blindly accepts what science says. For example, if science considers telepathy to be a hoax, he believes it unconditionally. Any person with a university diploma is an indisputable authority for him. He is concerned about what people will say, and his behavior is guided by the opinions of others. He is unable to distinguish intellectual knowledge from faith. He stubbornly defends his point of view only because he is “sure that it is so.”
The anti-individual is both a cause and a consequence of a low level of consciousness. Speaking about the mechanism of consciousness, it is difficult to draw a clear line between cause and effect, since they influence each other.
For example, the following two statements are equally true: “an anti-individual is the result of a low level of consciousness,” “a low level of consciousness is the result of the fact that a person is an anti-individual.”
The question arises: what comes first? Is a low level of consciousness the result of a person being an anti-individual? Or does he become an anti-individual due to a low level of consciousness?
In reality, the primary is the low level of consciousness. We said earlier that conscious deep learning creates a mature self. However, how can a person consciously and intelligently acquire knowledge if he lacks a mature “I”? Certain personal qualities in childhood, combined with positive circumstances, contribute to the awakening of consciousness and an increase in its level. However, these factors are outside the generally accepted social and cultural norms. For example, a withdrawn child who has little interaction with his peers tends to be more observant and reflective and may think more deeply about everything that enters his consciousness. Such intensive use of higher intellectual abilities in early age contributes to the formation of “I”. It develops quickly if the child persistently continues to analyze the world around him. The most important elements for the formation of a high level of consciousness are laid in childhood and adolescence, when there are many changes and impressions in life. At the same time, it is important that the child develops certain character traits and that the parents are able to encourage his initiative and satisfy his curiosity.
The use of special methods in teaching children in schools would allow them to be taught to achieve a high level of consciousness. But this means that the leaders of the educational system must first of all understand what wakefulness is and achieve this state.
The education system is designed to give children knowledge, but it does not teach them to understand this knowledge. Children are forced to study complex subjects without first being taught to think.
To explain the mechanism of knowledge acquisition, let us first clarify some concepts whose meaning is too broad. Let us give a more precise and complete explanation of some words and distinguish them from generally accepted meanings, with the help of which it is impossible to describe the higher mechanisms of thinking.
KNOWING and UNDERSTANDING are not the same thing. A person can know without understanding, but cannot understand without knowing. Understanding is the final result of knowledge, allowing a person to come to solid and deep conclusions that become an integral part of his mind. Understanding is the perfect form of knowledge. To know means to have a superficial idea of something, to store information in memory. A person who knows can only operate with ready-made concepts, and one who understands can have his own judgments. The anti-individual knows, and the individual understands.
It is known that any process of deep understanding allows one to assimilate certain elements of the cognizable, which are never forgotten. For example, a correct understanding of the theory of relativity forms a clear idea in the mind of a person, which will forever remain at the disposal of his intellect. Knowledge is limited because it does not give an idea of the whole. Understanding allows you to compare and connect different things, which helps to deepen, expand and improve concepts.
THINKING and REFLECTING are not the same thing. Meditation is a process of deep understanding carried out in a state of supreme awakening. All people think, but only a few reflect. The thinking of ordinary people is chaotic, unclear, involuntary mental activity, during which a person falls under the power of his own imagination. We can say that he does not think, but is forced to think. He is guided by prejudices, prejudices, emotions, instincts and passions. Reflection is the highest type of mental activity in which a person intentionally and consciously uses his mental abilities.
Clarity of thought, which very few people have, is a consequence of reflection. Unable to think with clarity. We know that the normal mental state of a person is confused, unclear and foggy even when he is solving very complex problems.
Thus, the concept of “thinking” corresponds to “knowing,” and the concept of “reflecting” corresponds to “understanding.”
Logic gives us the necessary elements to use thinking effectively. Unfortunately, it does not allow you to correct errors caused by bad ideas. Conventional thinking is based on unclear and erroneous concepts. In reality, we only think clearly in exceptional cases.
The inability to manage intellectual abilities is one of the main reasons for a low level of consciousness.
Another reason is the phenomenon of “identification”. Identification is the absorption of a person’s consciousness by an idea, event, internal state, visual image, sound, or performance of certain physical movements.
Identification leads directly to sleep. To awaken means to be able to let go of identification with an idea, an event, an internal state, a visual image, a sound, or the performance of certain physical movements.
Let's imagine a person's consciousness as a certain force that can be separated from him. It can be symbolically depicted as a rubber ball glued to the forehead. If this ball exists, then the person is conscious, in other words, his level of consciousness is more or less high.
For example, a person sits quietly at home in a chair and is not particularly busy with anything. Suddenly the window breaks from the impact of a stone. The rubber ball (consciousness) instantly flies off to what is happening and returns with sensory information that cannot be correctly perceived by a person because he is unconscious, that is, his ability to assess the situation is temporarily absent. He shudders violently because consciousness did not return to him before he received this sensory information. This is a typical example of identification or projection of the Self. Thus, this person “united” with the suddenly breaking glass and “became part” of what was happening, so his feelings were especially intense. Identification turns a person from a spectator into an actor, which is why he easily loses his calm.
In everyday life, we often encounter problems and events that are not directly related to us, but nevertheless have a deep emotional impact on us. The more we identify with a problem, the more agitated we become.
Let's give a common example. We see a man who has fallen unconscious on the street. This affects us, nothing more. But if this person turns out to be our relative, then we will certainly be very upset. Through a deep emotional connection, our identification will be much stronger.
The less we identify with a situation, the clearer we think. For example, it is easy to advise someone else how to solve their problem. While he himself cannot see her clearly due to his identification with her, from the outside the solution seems obvious. But if it were our problem, we might not be able to find the right solution.
Understanding identification is the key to achieving a state of calm. Next we will look at some methods to achieve this.
The vicious circle that creates and maintains a low level of consciousness is that this level is characterized by certain mental states, which, in turn, prevent a person from awakening.
Internal conflicts do not allow a person to see reality, which keeps his consciousness at a low level. Complexes, disappointments, suppression of emotions and neuroses are the mortal enemies of consciousness.
Habits are also a serious obstacle to achieving high levels of awakening because they reduce the conscious attention that should be present in our actions.
In essence, the inability to awaken is a dysfunction of the mind. Strictly speaking, absolutely normal people does not exist, since everyone is influenced in one way or another by unconscious impulses.
Any nervous disorder is a mental disorder that interferes with normal brain activity.
A person’s ability to reason is enough to control his negative emotions and the state of excessive nervous tension. Nevertheless, in life we see that very smart people have no more self-control than people with low intelligence.
A low level of consciousness (half-sleep) often represents a continuation of that uterine stage of development when the fetus was asleep, comfortable and safe. The trauma of birth associated with the abrupt separation of the fetus from the mother often persists into adulthood. This is expressed in the fact that most of the personality lingers at the childish level. Such a person never grows up and is constantly looking for a replacement for the image of his mother.
Simple individuals with little experience, as a rule, turn out to be more balanced and stable.
A person with a low level of consciousness is subject to excessive nervous tension, has poor self-control, gets tired quickly, has difficulty concentrating, and has low performance.
In the next chapter, devoted to consciousness and subconsciousness, we will deepen and expand some concepts that will further reveal the causes of a low level of consciousness.
Determining the causes of waterlogging and the location of land flooding zones is a necessary and significant stage in the development of a water reduction system. Based on identifying the causes of waterlogging, it is possible to develop an effective and economical drainage design.
It should be noted that from a practical point of view, the classification of the causes of waterlogging is not relevant. The urgent task is to schematize the conditions of water supply to an object, to determine priorities in the causes of flooding, which is the basis for the development of a rational water reduction system.
Natural causes of flooding
Among natural causes, local and regional causes can be distinguished.
The regional natural cause of waterlogging and flooding of territories for the North-West region of the Russian Federation is the excess of the total annual precipitation over total evaporation and transpiration (water consumption by plants).
Among the local reasons we can highlight geological, topographical, hydrological reasons for waterlogging.
Geological reasons for waterlogging – features of the geological structure from the surface to a depth of 6-10 m (in relation to landscape construction). The number of soil layers and the water-physical characteristics of each layer can vary over a wide range.
For example, on the Karelian Isthmus (Leningrad region) the number of layers within depths of 6-10 m can reach 8-10; and the filtration coefficients of each layer can vary from 0.001 to 50 m/day. At the same time, at a distance of several tens of meters, geological profiles can differ significantly.
Topographic reasons for waterlogging – features of the relief of the construction area. The presence of hills and elevated ridges separated by hollows and thalwegs, natural terraces, closed depressions and river valleys - all these relief elements make the territory particularly attractive as an object of landscape construction (an example of this is the Karelian Isthmus), but at the same time the complexity of engineering development of the territory increases significantly. The tasks of water reduction and drainage are especially relevant in lower parts of the relief, where the runoff of surface and groundwater is concentrated.
Hydrological causes of waterlogging – the influence of the natural hydrographic network (rivers, streams, lakes, etc.) on the water regime of the adjacent territory. First of all, the back-up of the groundwater of the territory by the waters of the receiving water.
Since, from a practical point of view, the most pressing task is schematization natural conditions, let us consider the most common schemes for the formation of flood zones under the influence of natural factors, presented in the figure below.
Flat areas with minimal slopes of the earth's surface and groundwater level. At low surface slopes, there is no surface runoff, resulting in an increase in infiltration into the soil. At low groundwater slopes there is practically no movement of groundwater. As a result of the influence of these two factors, even with well-permeable soils, flooding zones are formed.
Designations for the figures in this material:
Schemes for the formation of flood zones in territories.
1 – surface of the earth;
2 – flood zone;
3 – weakly permeable soil;
4 – highly permeable soil;
5 – groundwater level;
6 – groundwater level of the “verkhovodka”;
7 – GWL at elevated levels water in the river;
8 – GWL at household level water in the river;
9 – water level in the river during flood;
10 – water level in the river at low water;
11 – rainfall;
12 – infiltration;
13 – movement of groundwater flow;
14 – movement of “upper water” waters;
15 – movement of ground-pressure waters;
16 – movement of surface waters;
17 – planning mark;
18 – GWL before construction.
"Verkhovodka" If there are lenses of weakly permeable soils near the soil surface, a “perch” is formed - the first groundwater horizon from the surface, which is characterized by local distribution (above the lens) and variability over time (confined to high-water periods). As a result, local flooding zones with surface dimensions ranging from tens to hundreds of meters are formed periodically (after snowmelt or prolonged rains).
Territories at the foot of the slope. At the foot of the slope, surface runoff slows down, moving along the slope at high speed from the overlying terrace, as a result - more water is absorbed into the soil, the depth of groundwater flow increases, and the groundwater level approaches the surface of the earth. At the same time, there is a back-up of the groundwater flow moving from the higher areas. As a result, conditions are created for the formation of a flooding zone at the foot of the slope, up to the formation of springs.
Flood zone on a slope. Features of the geological structure - a layer of weakly permeable soil is located close to the day surface in the middle part of a fairly steep slope. As a result, the groundwater level, located above the impermeable layer, approaches the daytime surface, until it reaches the surface with the formation of springs.
Pressurized groundwater. The watershed, which is the feeding area of the highly permeable soil layer (layer 4), is located in high-lying areas. In the underlying territories in layer 4, enclosed between layers 3 (layers with low filtration properties), water pressure increases - pressure groundwater is formed.
In the underlying territories, vertical movement of water from layer 4 through layer 3 upward to the daytime surface of the earth is possible. As the thickness of layer 3 decreases, the intensity of this phenomenon increases, until it reaches the surface with the formation of an open water surface. In this case, they say that the flooding zone was formed as a result of the presence of pressure groundwater.
Influence of water level in natural streams. In areas adjacent to natural watercourses, the groundwater level regime directly depends on the regime of water levels in the watercourse. An increase in these levels, especially over a long period of time, causes an increase in groundwater level and the formation of a flood zone in the coastal area.
Artificial causes of flooding of territories
In this group of reasons, the following can be distinguished: transformation of the relief, creation of structures along the path of the natural movement of surface and groundwater, the influence of water levels in artificial reservoirs, fluid leaks from pipelines and canals.
Relief transformation. As a result of work on organizing the relief and vertical planning, which involves a significant lowering of the design elevations in relation to the original relief, the groundwater level may end up at a depth less than the depth corresponding to the drainage norm.
Creation of barriers to the natural movement of surface water. Before the construction of the structure, surface runoff moved along the surface of the slope at a sufficiently high speed, ensuring minimal absorption into the soil and recharge of ground water. After construction of the structure, surface runoff is concentrated at upper limit structures. As a result, the absorption of water into the soil significantly increases and the groundwater level rises under the structure and down the slope.
Creation of barriers to the natural movement of groundwater. After the construction of a structure with a deep underground part (below the natural groundwater level), the flow of groundwater becomes “backed by an underground dam.” As a result, the groundwater level rises at the upper boundary of the structure, creating the prerequisites for the appearance of a flooding zone.
In addition to the formation of a flood zone along the upper boundary of the structure, prerequisites are created for the occurrence of contact filtration along the underground contour of the structure, the process of suffusion.
Influence of water level in artificial reservoirs. The comments are similar to the corresponding paragraph describing natural causes. The difference is that the rise in water level is caused by the construction of dams, dams, structures downstream, and the narrowing of river beds and canals.
Liquid leaks from pipelines. Water leaks from water supply and sewerage structures and drains can cause an increase in groundwater level, especially in urban environments.
This material is a chapter from the book by Konstantin Kriulin "Drainage systems in cottage and landscape construction". You can purchase the book from our office.
Konstantin Kriulin is the leading teacher of the elective “Drainage in Landscape Construction”. You can view his page on our website
Hydrological surveys include a large complex of field work such as monitoring water levels in rivers, lakes and artificial reservoirs, determining river slopes, living cross-sectional areas, flow velocities, water flow rates, studying river sediments and much more.
Observations of these elements of the water regime are carried out at specially arranged permanent or temporary water metering posts and hydrological stations. Depending on the tasks assigned, the timing of observations and the amount of information, stations and posts (in the GUGMS system) are divided into several categories. Hydrological stations are divided into two categories, river water-measuring stations - into three categories. At posts of the third category, observations are made of level fluctuations, water and air temperatures, and ice phenomena. At posts of categories II and I, the volume of observations is further increased by determining water flow rates, the flow rate of suspended and bottom sediments.
When conducting surveys for the construction of engineering structures, departmental organizations set up posts with a limited period of work, although this period can range from several months to several years. The composition and timing of observations at such posts are determined by the range of tasks solved during the design of an engineering structure. Therefore, in addition to their direct functions - to provide information about the water regime of the watercourse, water measuring posts perform important role during channel surveys, when carrying out work to compile a longitudinal profile of the river, etc.
Water level is called the height of the position of the free surface of the water relative to a constant horizontal reference plane. Graphs of level fluctuations make it possible to judge the dynamics of hydrological phenomena and, accordingly, the long-term and intra-annual distribution of runoff, including during periods of high water and floods. To monitor water levels in the river, water measuring posts of various designs are used: rack, pile, mixed, self-registering.
Rack posts, as the name suggests, are a strip mounted on a pile securely driven into the ground, on a bridge abutment, embankment lining or natural vertical coastal rock. The length of the batten attached to the pile is 1¸2 m. The size of the divisions on the batten is 1¸2 cm. Water level readings along the batten are taken by eye, rounded to 1 cm (Fig. 1). It is difficult to record the level of a flowing, and often turbulent, water surface with higher accuracy; however, for most engineering tasks such accuracy is quite sufficient. If higher accuracy is required, then the rod is placed in a small backwater (bucket), located in the bank at the water's edge and connected by a ditch to the river.
Rice. 1. Rack water measuring station
Rack water gauges are primarily used to observe levels when their fluctuations are relatively small. On rivers with a large amplitude of level fluctuations or during periods of floods and floods, pile posts are used.
Pile water metering station(Fig. 2) consists of a number of piles located along the alignment perpendicular to the river flow. Piles made of pine, oak or reinforced concrete with a diameter of 15¸20 cm are driven into the soil of the banks and bottom of the river to a depth of about 1.5 m; the excess between the heads of adjacent piles should be about 0.5¸0.7 m, and if the coast is very flat, then 0.2¸0.5 m. At the ends of the piles, their numbers are signed with paint; the topmost pile is assigned the first number, subsequent numbers are assigned to the piles located below.
To fix the level on pile posts, use a small portable rail with divisions every 1¸2 cm; cross section slats - rhombic, while the slats flow better around water; There is a metal frame on the bottom of the lath, which allows you to confidently fix the installation of the lath on the head of a forged nail driven into the end of the pile.
When reading the level, the observer places a portable staff on the pile closest to the shore, covered with water, and writes down the reading on the staff and the number of the pile in the journal.
Special means for measuring levels include maximum and minimum gauges, i.e. the simplest devices that allow you to record the highest or lowest levels for a certain period of time.
Rice. 2. Scheme of the observation tower and pile water metering post: 1 – tower; 2 – theodolite; 3 – rapper; 4 – pile; 5 – water measuring rod ( h– counting on the staff); 6 – float
Mixed water metering stations They are a combination of a rack and pile post. At such posts, fixation of high levels is done on piles, and low levels - by rails.
For continuous recording of level fluctuations, special devices- limnigraphs, which record all level changes on a tape driven by a clock mechanism. Water metering stations with water level recorders have a great advantage over simple water metering stations. They make it possible to record levels continuously, but installing a recorder requires the construction of special structures, which significantly increases the cost of their use.
To constantly monitor the stability of the slats or piles, a reference point is installed near the water-measuring station (Fig. 1), usually along the alignment of the piles of the water-measuring station, then it is at the same time a permanent beginning (PO) for calculating distances, a kind of beginning of picketing.
The benchmark mark of the water-measuring station is established during leveling work from the benchmarks of the state leveling network. The benchmark of the water metering post is laid in the ground in compliance with general rules installation of benchmarks, i.e. its monolith must be located below the depth of maximum soil freezing, in a place convenient for leveling, and always outside the flood zone, i.e. above the high water horizon (HWL).
As stated above, at most water measuring posts the height system is conditional. The starting point for counting heights is zero post graphics– an altitude mark that remains constant for the entire period of the post’s existence. This conditional horizontal plane is located at least 0.5 m below the lowest water level that can be expected at the post site. At slatted water-measuring posts, the zero of the graph is often combined with the zero of the water-measuring staff.
Measurements begin at the post after the zero mark of the post schedule has been assigned and the zero mark of the pile heads has been determined by leveling, and the difference between the zero marks of the post schedule and the marks of the pile heads has been determined. This difference in marks is called register.
The private height system at the water gauging station makes it possible to solve the overwhelming number of problems in studying the water regime of the river. However, for a number of structural design problems it is necessary to know not only conditional, but also absolute (Baltic) level heights. For this purpose, water-measuring posts, or rather benchmarks of water-gauging posts, are tied to the nearest benchmarks of the state leveling network.
Observations at the water gauging station, in addition to level observations, include visual observations of the state of the river (freeze up, ice drift, clear), weather conditions, water and air temperatures, precipitation, and ice thickness.
The thickness of the ice is measured with a special rod; air temperature with a sling thermometer, and water temperature with a water thermometer.
At permanent water-measuring posts, observations are carried out daily at 8 a.m. and 8 p.m. Average daily level is defined as the average of these observations. If level fluctuations are insignificant, then observations can be carried out once a day (8 hours). When solving special problems, as well as during periods of high water or high water, the level is fixed more often, sometimes after 2 hours.
The results of observations at the water gauge post are recorded in a journal.
The primary processing of water-gauge observations consists of bringing the readings on the staff to zero in the graph of the water-gauge post, compiling a summary showing the daily average daily levels, and constructing a graph of daily levels, on which symbols show freeze-up, ice drift and other ice phenomena that took place on the river.
Systematized results of observations of levels throughout the entire network of water gauging posts of a given river basin are periodically published in hydrological yearbooks.
To obtain complete observation materials and guarantee the safety of the water metering post for the entire intended period of operation, it is recommended to specifically select a place to install the post. In this case, it is desirable that the river section be straight, the bed stable from erosion or alluvium, so that the bank has a moderate slope and is protected from ice drift; there should be no river piers nearby; the readings of the post should not be influenced by the backwater from the dam or a nearby tributary; It is more convenient to use a post if it is located near a populated area. There is no need to strictly align the water gauge with the axis of the future engineering structure.
At hydrological stations, water-measuring posts of categories I and II, as well as during departmental surveys, a hydrometric cross-section is laid out, which is used for regular determinations of flow velocities, water flows and sediments. In this section of the river, the flow of water should be parallel to the stream, which is ensured by its straightness and correct - trough-shaped bottom profile. If it is intended to conduct regular and long-term observations at a hydrometric site, then it will be equipped with walkways, hanging cradles, or equipped with floating facilities (ferries or boats).
The benchmark mark of the water-measuring station is established during leveling work from the benchmarks of the state leveling network, for periodic monitoring of the stability of the slats or piles of the water-measuring station, during measuring work, as well as when creating an altitude justification for surveying.
The benchmark of the water metering post is laid in the ground in compliance with the general rules for installing benchmarks, i.e. its monolith must be located below the depth of maximum soil freezing, in a place convenient for leveling, and always outside the flood zone, i.e. above the high water horizon.
On permanent watercourses, the most typical water levels are:
VIU– high historical level, i.e. the highest water level ever observed on a given river and established by surveys of old-timers or by visual traces on capital structures;
USVV– the highest water level for the entire observation period;
UVV– the level of high waters is the average of all high waters;
RUVV– the calculated level of high waters, which corresponds to the calculated water flow and is accepted as the main one when designing structures;
RSU– the calculated navigable level, which is the highest water level during the navigable period, is necessary when determining the altitude position of the bridge elements;
UMV– the level of low water corresponds to the water level during the period between floods;
USM– level of average low water;
UNM– low water level;
UL– level of freezing;
UPPL– level of the first ice movement;
UNL– the highest level of ice drift.
During surveys, fluctuations in water levels throughout the entire area can reach large values, therefore, to compare depths across cross-sections, enter cutting level– a single instantaneous level for the entire survey area. Usually, the instantaneous minimum level in the studied section of the river for the entire measurement time is taken as the cutoff level. To do this, it is necessary to determine the marks of the top of the edge stakes in each hydraulic gate using a leveling move.
All measurement results are given in terms of unified position free surface of the river, which is subsequently considered zero for various constructions: transverse and longitudinal profiles, river plan in isobaths. It should be borne in mind that the adopted reference surface corresponding to the cutting level, like any free surface of the river, is not horizontal.
Periodic level fluctuations are caused by the manifestation of periodic gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun - the so-called tidal forces.
Tidal level fluctuations cover almost the entire coast of the World Ocean, and for brevity they are called tides. Thus, tidal phenomena are dynamic processes in the waters of the seas and oceans (including level fluctuations).
The basic concepts associated with tides are the definitions of total and low water, the magnitude of high and low tides as the difference between full neighboring and low waters, the duration of the rise and fall of the level (high and low tide phases), the duration of the tidal cycle.
The maximum range of tidal level fluctuations at each point lies between the highest and lowest theoretical levels calculated by calculation.
Depending on the duration of the tidal cycle, there are:
Semidiurnal tides (S) - with a period of approximately half a day, i.e. having two high and low waters during the day; - daily tides (C) - having high and low water during the day;
Irregular semi-diurnal (SI) - with a noticeable daily difference in the values of the corresponding level extremes;
Irregular diurnal (ID) - daily tides, which at low declinations of the Moon become semidiurnal with a significant decrease in their magnitude;
Mixed tides are irregular semidiurnal and/or irregular diurnal tides.
Particular attention should be paid to abnormal tides, which differ in certain characteristics from the main types of tides listed above.
For example, the effect of shallow water can be so significant that the name “shallow” is added to the general name of the tide. This changes the length of time the level rises and falls.
In the estuaries of rivers, the high tide is shorter in time than the low tide.
Sometimes the influence of shallow water becomes so significant that additional high and low waters appear on the semidiurnal tide curve. Such tides are rare, in particular, they are observed in the points of Portland, Southampton (English Channel) or on the White Sea (the “maniha” phenomenon).
Another example of the distortion of tides by local conditions is the phenomenon called “bor” (mascare, pororokam) and is characterized by the fact that the tide moves up the river in the form of a wave or series of waves with a very sharp rise in level.
Tides are characterized by the following inequalities:
daily inequalities in height, representing the difference in the heights of two successive high or low waters (for different points, daily inequalities have different values - from a barely noticeable difference in the heights of adjacent high or low waters to the complete disappearance of one high and one low water);
semi-monthly inequalities in heights and magnitudes of tides (semi-monthly inequality, depending on the phase of the Moon, is most clearly manifested in semi-diurnal tides). During the full moon, the magnitude of the semidiurnal tides is maximum - the so-called spring tides occur. In the first and third quarters, the tides are the smallest - quadrature tides occur;
semi-monthly inequality depending on the declinations of the Moon and the Sun (tropical inequality) is usually the main one in the daily and irregular daily tides; at large declinations of the Moon, the tides are called tropical and are of large magnitude; during the passage of the Moon through the equator, the tides are called equatorial and have small magnitudes ;
monthly tide inequality (parallactic) appears depending on the distance between the Earth and the Moon (perigee). The minimum values of tides are observed at the greatest distance between the Earth and the Moon (apogee).
Zero depth" and "Depth correction".
Depth zero is the conditional surface from which depth marks are given on marine navigation charts.
The actual depth at any point can be determined by algebraically summing the depth Hk indicated on the map with the height h of the instantaneous tidal sea level determined from the Tide Tables.
In most cases, the lowest levels are chosen as depth zeros, but there may be cases when the actual depth is less than the mark shown on the map. The Tide Tables for these days give negative low water heights, which must be subtracted from the depth marks on the map.
In the Tide Tables and on domestic nautical charts for foreign waters, the same depth zeros are retained as are accepted on the corresponding foreign charts. As a result, Tide Tables can be used when working with any foreign maps.
The main navigation aid containing pre-calculated levels of the World Ocean are tide tables. There are calendar-type tide tables, published annually on calendar dates, and permanent tables, designed for many years. Pre-calculated levels in the tables are given for the Russian seas relative to the lowest theoretical level (LTL), and for foreign waters relative to depth zeros, which are accepted on foreign charts
The long-awaited spring has arrived, and the topic of floods, their prevention and the readiness of the relevant structures to deal with the elements has again become relevant.
Despite the fact that natural disasters associated with rising water levels in rivers occur every year, the wording is still constantly confused - sometimes they talk about floods, sometimes about floods, sometimes about floods. This article distinguishes between these concepts.
First of all, it is necessary to explain the difference between a flood and a flood. According to modern scientific ideas, flood - this is the highest water content of the river in a year, regularly repeating in the same seasons. The flood period, as a rule, accounts for a significant part of the annual river flow, up to 80%. The antipode of flood is low water- the period of the lowest water level in the river. During the year, rivers of a certain type of nutrition and water regime, in accordance with climatic conditions, naturally alternate between high water and low water.
A phenomenon of a slightly different order should be considered flood , occurring irregularly. This is an accidental sharp and short-term rise in water level, an increase in water flow in the river. Unlike floods, floods can occur at any time of the year. They are not associated with natural processes in the water regime of rivers.
Thus, it is one thing to have an annually recurring flood on the rivers of the Russian Plain in the spring, caused by melting snow (these rivers are characterized by snow feeding), and quite another thing to see a sharp rise in water on the same rivers, for example, in the summer after unexpectedly heavy rains, which should be called a flood.
The very fact of rising water - neither natural nor accidental - is not yet called a flood. This is a different kind of phenomenon. Flood - this is the flooding of an area with water, which can occur as a result of rising water levels in a river, lake or sea and can be caused by both floods and floods.
It is important that a flood is already a natural disaster resulting from rising water levels in the river. Settlements, fields, communications suffer from flooding, i.e. floods. The rise of water in the river that causes it can be classified differently depending on how natural and expected this phenomenon is.
Every spring, in our latitudes, the problem of combating the consequences of floods caused by spring floods comes up - spring floods are typical for rivers in the temperate climate zone, but they are explained differently.
Rivers flowing through taiga, mixed and broad-leaved forests, forest-steppes and mixed-grass steppes in the European part of Russia are characterized by snow feeding. The floods occur during the period of the most active snow melting (March - April), gradually “moving” from south to north.
To the south, in dry steppes and semi-deserts, we should talk about rain nutrition. However, the peak of precipitation here also occurs in the spring, so the flood occurs around the same time.
East of the Urals, in Siberia, in zones of continental and sharply continental climates, extending all the way to the Dzhugdzhur ridge on the border with the Far East, the situation is similar. The rivers are dominated by snow feeding and, consequently, spring floods. A local feature is that heavy snowmelt occurs later - usually in May.
A specific situation has arisen in Far East. It is dominated by a temperate monsoon climate. It is characterized by: dry winters (with winds from land to sea) and wet, rainy summers (with winds from sea to land). In accordance with the climate, the local rivers are typically fed by rain and floods in the summer.