Exam in Russian figures and paths. Lexico-syntactic means. Literary tropes in the poem. Example

B 8. SPEECH. LANGUAGE MEANS OF EXPRESSION.

Tropes are the use of a word in a figurative meaning.

List of tropes

Meaning of the term

Allegory

Allegory. A trope consisting in an allegorical depiction of an abstract concept using a concrete, life-like image.

In fables and fairy tales, cunning is shown in the form of a fox, greed - in the form of a wolf.

Hyperbola

A means of artistic representation based on exaggeration.

The eyes are huge, like

spotlights.

Extreme exaggeration, giving the image a fantastic character.

The mayor with a stuffed head at Saltykov-Shchedrin.

Where are you, smart one, coming from, head? (I. Krylov.)

A means of artistic representation based on understatement (as opposed to hyperbole).

The waist is no thicker than a bottle neck. (N. Gogol.)

Metaphor,

expanded

metaphor

Hidden comparison. A type of trope in which individual words or expressions are brought together by the similarity of their meanings or by contrast. Sometimes the entire poem is an expanded poetic image.

With a sheaf of your oat hair

You belong to me forever. (S. Yesenin.)

Personification

This is an image of inanimate objects in which they are endowed with the properties of living beings, the gift of speech, the ability to think and feel.

What are you howling about, wind?

night, Why are you complaining so madly?

(F. Tyutchev.)

Metonymy

A type of trope in which words are brought together by the contiguity of the concepts they denote. A phenomenon or object is depicted using other words or concepts. For example, the name of the profession is replaced by the name of the instrument of activity. There are many examples: transfer from a vessel to its contents, from a person to his clothes, from a locality to residents, from an organization to participants, from an author to works.

It will take me forever, When Pero, my joy, falls asleep forever... (A. Pushkin.)

I ate on silver and gold.

Well, eat another plate, son.

Periphrase (or paraphrase)

One of the tropes in which the name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by an indication of its most characteristic features, enhancing the figurativeness of speech.

King of beasts (instead of lion)

Synecdoche

A type of metonymy consisting in transferring the meaning of one object to another based on the quantitative relationship between them: part instead of the whole; whole in the meaning of part; singular in the meaning of general; replacing a number with a set; replacement of a specific concept with a generic one.

All flags will be visiting us. (A. Pushkin.); Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts. We all look at Napoleons.

Comparison

A technique based on comparing a phenomenon or concept with another phenomenon.

The ice, hardened on the chilly river, lies like melting sugar.

Figurative definition; a word that defines an object and emphasizes its properties.

The grove dissuaded

golden with Birch's cheerful tongue.

FIGURES OF SPEECH

Generalized name for stylistic devices in which the word, in

Unlike tropes, it does not necessarily have a figurative meaning.

Meaning of the term

Anaphora (or one-beginning)

Repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of sentences, poetic lines, stanzas.

I love you, Petra’s creation, I love your strict, slender appearance...

Antithesis

Stylistic device of contrast, opposition of phenomena and concepts. Often based on the use of antonyms.

And the new so denies the old!.. It ages before our eyes! Already shorter than the skirt. It's already longer!

Gradation

Graduality is a stylistic means that allows you to recreate events and actions, thoughts and feelings in the process, in development, in increasing or decreasing significance.

I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry, Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.

Inversion

Rearrangement; a stylistic figure consisting of a violation of the general grammatical sequence of speech.

He passed the doorman like an arrow and flew up the marble steps.

Lexical repetition

Intentional repetition of the same word in the text.

Forgive me, forgive me, forgive me! And I forgive you, and I forgive you. I don’t hold any grudges, I promise you that, But only you will forgive me too!

Pleonasm

Repetition of similar words and phrases, the intensification of which creates a particular stylistic effect.

My friend, my friend, I am very, very sick.

Oxymoron

A combination of words with opposite meanings that do not go together.

Dead souls, bitter joy, sweet sorrow, ringing silence.

Rhetorical question, exclamation, appeal

Techniques used to enhance the expressiveness of speech. A rhetorical question is asked not with the goal of getting an answer, but for the emotional impact on the reader.

Where will you gallop, proud horse, and where will you land your hooves? (A. Pushkin.) What a summer! What a summer! Yes, it's just witchcraft. (F. Tyutchev.)

Syntactic

parallelism

A technique consisting in similar construction of sentences, lines or stanzas.

I look to the future

with fear, I look at the past with longing...

Default

A figure that leaves the listener to guess and think about what will be discussed in a suddenly interrupted statement.

You'll be going home soon: Look... So what? To tell the truth, no one is very concerned about my fate.

Ellipsis

A figure of poetic syntax based on the omission of one of the members of a sentence, easily restored in meaning.

We turned villages into ashes, cities into dust, and swords into sickles and plows. (V. Zhukovsky.)

A stylistic figure opposite to anaphora; repetition of a word or phrase at the end of poetic lines.

Dear friend, even in this quiet House Fever strikes me. I can’t find a place in a quiet House Near a peaceful fire. (A. Blok.)

Expressive - emotional vocabulary

Conversational.

Words that have a slightly reduced stylistic coloring compared to neutral vocabulary, are characteristic of spoken language, and are emotionally charged.

Dirty, loud, bearded.

Emotionally charged words

Evaluative in nature, having both positive and negative connotations.

Adorable, disgusting, villain

Words with suffixes of emotional evaluation.

Cute, little bunny, little brain, brainchild.

PICTURE POSSIBILITIES OF MORPHOLOGY

1. Expressive use of case, gender, animation, etc.

Somehow I don't have enough air,

I drink the wind, I swallow the fog...

We are vacationing in Sochi.

How many Plyushkins have divorced!

2. Direct and figurative use of verb tense forms

I came to school yesterday and saw a notice: “Quarantine.” Oh, I was so happy!

3. Expressive use of words from different parts of speech.

The most amazing story happened to me!

I received an unpleasant message.

I was visiting her. This cup will not pass you by.

4. Use of interjections and onomatopoeic words.

Here's closer! They gallop... and into the yard Evgeniy! "Oh!" - and lighter than a shadow, Tatyana jumped into another hallway.

SOUND EXPRESSIVENESS

Means

Meaning of the term

Alliteration

A technique to enhance imagery by repeating consonant sounds.

The hiss of foamy glasses and the blue flame of punch...

Alternation

Alternation of sounds. Change of sounds that occupy the same place in a morpheme in different cases of its use.

Tangent - touch, shine - shine.

Assonance

A technique to enhance imagery by repeating vowel sounds.

The thaw is boring to me: the stench, the dirt, in the spring I am sick. (A. Pushkin.)

Sound recording

A technique for enhancing the visual power of a text by constructing phrases and lines in a way that would correspond to the picture being reproduced.

For three days I could hear how on the long, boring road the joints were clicking: east, east, east... (P. Antokolsky reproduces the sound of carriage wheels.)

Acoustic

Using the sounds of language to imitate the sounds of living and inanimate nature.

When the mazurka thunder roared... (A. Pushkin.)

PICTURE POSSIBILITIES OF SYNTAX

1. Rows of homogeneous members of a sentence.

When an empty and weak person hears flattering feedback about his dubious merits, he revels in his vanity, becomes arrogant and completely loses his tiny ability to be critical of his actions and his person.

2. Sentences with introductory words, appeals, isolated members.

Probably, there, in my native places, just as in my childhood and youth, the ashes bloom in the swampy backwaters and the reeds rustle, making me with their rustle, with their prophetic whispers, the poet that I became, that I was, that I will be, when I die.

3. Expressive use of sentences different types(complex, complex, non-union, single-component, incomplete, etc.).

They speak Russian everywhere; this is the language of my father and my mother, this is the language of my nanny, my childhood, my first love, almost all the moments of my life that entered my past as an integral property, as the basis of my personality.

4. Dialogic presentation.

Well? Is it true that he is so good-looking?

Surprisingly good, handsome, one might say.

5. Parcellation is a stylistic technique of dividing a phrase into parts or even individual words in a work in order to give speech intonation expression through its abrupt pronunciation.

Liberty and Fraternity. There will be no equality. Nobody. No one. Not

equal. Never. (A. Volodin.) He saw me and froze. Numb. He fell silent.

6. Non-union or asyndeton - deliberate omission of conjunctions, which gives the text dynamism and swiftness.

Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts.

People knew: somewhere, very far from them, there was a war going on.

If you are afraid of wolves, do not go into the forest.

7. Polyconjunction or polysyndeton - repeating conjunctions serve to logically and intonationally emphasize the parts of the sentence connected by the conjunctions.

The ocean walked before my eyes, and swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded, and glowed, and went somewhere into infinity.

I will either burst into tears, or scream, or faint.

Speech. Analysis of means of expression.

It is necessary to distinguish between tropes (visual and expressive means of literature) based on the figurative meaning of words and figures of speech based on the syntactic structure of the sentence.

Lexical means.

Typically, in a review of assignment B8, an example of a lexical device is given in parentheses, either as one word or as a phrase in which one of the words is in italics.

Paths.

In the review, examples of tropes are indicated in parentheses, like a phrase.

Types of tropes and examples for them are in the table:

Figures of speech, sentence structure.

In task B8, the figure of speech is indicated by the number of the sentence given in brackets.

Remember!

When completing task B8, you should remember that you are filling in the gaps in the review, i.e. you restore the text, and with it both semantic and grammatical connections. Therefore, an analysis of the review itself can often serve as an additional clue: various adjectives of one kind or another, predicates consistent with the omissions, etc.

It will make it easier to complete the task and divide the list of terms into two groups: the first includes terms based on changes in the meaning of the word, the second - the structure of the sentence.

Analysis of the task.

(1) The Earth is a cosmic body, and we are astronauts making a very long flight around the Sun, together with the Sun across the infinite Universe. (2) The life support system on our beautiful ship is so ingeniously designed that it is constantly self-renewing and thus allows billions of passengers to travel for millions of years.

(3) It is difficult to imagine astronauts flying on a ship through outer space, deliberately destroying a complex and delicate life support system designed for a long flight. (4) But gradually, consistently, with amazing irresponsibility, we are putting this life support system out of action, poisoning rivers, destroying forests, and spoiling the World Ocean. (5) If on a small spaceship the astronauts will begin to fussily cut wires, unscrew screws, and drill holes in the casing, then this will have to be classified as suicide. (6) But there is no fundamental difference between a small ship and a large one. (7) The only question is size and time.

(8) Humanity, in my opinion, is a kind of disease of the planet. (9) They started, multiplied, and swarmed with microscopic creatures on a planetary, and even more so on a universal scale. (10) They accumulate in one place, and immediately deep ulcers and various growths appear on the body of the earth. (11) One has only to introduce a drop of a harmful (from the point of view of the earth and nature) culture into the green coat of the Forest (a team of lumberjacks, one barracks, two tractors) - and now a characteristic, symptomatic painful spot spreads from this place. (12) They scurry about, multiply, do their job, eating away the subsoil, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous waste.

(13) Unfortunately, such concepts as silence, the possibility of solitude and intimate communication between man and nature, with the beauty of our land, are just as vulnerable as the biosphere, just as defenseless against the pressure of so-called technological progress. (14) On the one hand, a person, delayed by the inhuman rhythm of modern life, overcrowding, a huge flow of artificial information, is weaned from spiritual communication with the outside world, on the other hand, this external world itself has been brought into such a state that sometimes it no longer invites a person to spiritual communication with him.

(15) It is unknown how this original disease called humanity will end for the planet. (16) Will the Earth have time to develop some kind of antidote?

(According to V. Soloukhin)

“The first two sentences use the trope of ________. This image of the “cosmic body” and “astronauts” is key to understanding the author’s position. Reasoning about how humanity behaves in relation to its home, V. Soloukhin comes to the conclusion that “humanity is a disease of the planet.” ______ (“scurry about, multiply, do their job, eating away the subsoil, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous waste”) convey the negative actions of man. The use of _________ in the text (sentences 8, 13, 14) emphasizes that everything said to the author is far from indifferent. Used in the 15th sentence, ________ “original” gives the argument a sad ending that ends with a question.”

List of terms:

1. epithet
2. litotes
3. introductory words and plug-in constructions
4. irony
5. extended metaphor
6. parcellation
7. question-and-answer form of presentation
8. dialectism
9. homogeneous members of the sentence

We divide the list of terms into two groups: the first – epithet, litotes, irony, extended metaphor, dialectism; the second – introductory words and inserted constructions, parcellation, question-answer form of presentation, homogeneous members of the sentence.

It is better to start completing the task with gaps that do not cause difficulties. For example, omission No. 2. Since a whole sentence is presented as an example, some kind of syntactic device is most likely implied. In a sentence “they scurry about, multiply, do their job, eating away the subsoil, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous waste” series of homogeneous sentence members are used : Verbs scurrying around, multiplying, doing business, participles eating away, exhausting, poisoning and nouns rivers, oceans, atmosphere. At the same time, the verb “transfer” in the review indicates that the word in the place of the omission should be plural. In the list in the plural there are introductory words and inserted constructions and homogeneous clauses. A careful reading of the sentence shows that the introductory words, i.e. those constructions that are not thematically related to the text and can be removed from the text without loss of meaning are absent. Thus, in place of gap No. 2, it is necessary to insert option 9) homogeneous members of the sentence.

Blank No. 3 shows sentence numbers, which means the term again refers to the structure of sentences. Parcellation can be immediately “discarded”, since authors must indicate two or three consecutive sentences. The question-answer form is also an incorrect option, since sentences 8, 13, 14 do not contain a question. What remains are introductory words and plug-in constructions. We find them in the sentences: In my opinion, unfortunately, on the one hand, on the other hand.

In place of the last gap, it is necessary to substitute a masculine term, since the adjective “used” must be consistent with it in the review, and it must be from the first group, since only one word is given as an example “ original". Masculine terms – epithet and dialectism. The latter is clearly not suitable, since this word is quite understandable. Turning to the text, we find what the word is combined with: "original disease". Here the adjective is clearly used in a figurative sense, so we have an epithet.

All that remains is to fill in the first gap, which is the most difficult. The review says that this is a trope, and it is used in two sentences where the image of the earth and us, people, is reinterpreted as the image of a cosmic body and astronauts. This is clearly not irony, since there is not a drop of mockery in the text, and not litotes, but rather, on the contrary, the author deliberately exaggerates the scale of the disaster. Thus, the only possible option remains - metaphor, the transfer of properties from one object or phenomenon to another based on our associations. Expanded - because it is impossible to isolate a separate phrase from the text.

Answer: 5, 9, 3, 1.

Practice.

(1) As a child, I hated matinees because my father came to our kindergarten. (2) He sat on a chair near the Christmas tree, played his button accordion for a long time, trying to find the right melody, and our teacher sternly told him: “Valery Petrovich, move up!” (3) All the guys looked at my father and choked with laughter. (4) He was small, plump, began to go bald early, and although he never drank, for some reason his nose was always beet red, like a clown’s. (5) Children, when they wanted to say about someone that he was funny and ugly, said this: “He looks like Ksyushka’s dad!”

(6) And I, first in kindergarten and then at school, bore the heavy cross of my father’s absurdity. (7) Everything would be fine (you never know what kind of fathers anyone has!), but I didn’t understand why he, an ordinary mechanic, came to our matinees with his stupid accordion. (8) I would play at home and not disgrace either myself or my daughter! (9) Often getting confused, he groaned thinly, like a woman, and a guilty smile appeared on his round face. (10) I was ready to fall through the ground from shame and behaved emphatically coldly, showing with my appearance that this ridiculous man with a red nose had nothing to do with me.

(11) I was in third grade when I caught a bad cold. (12) I started getting otitis media. (13) I screamed in pain and hit my head with my palms. (14) Mom called ambulance, and at night we went to the district hospital. (15) On the way, we got into a terrible snowstorm, the car got stuck, and the driver, shrilly, like a woman, began to shout that now we would all freeze. (16) He screamed piercingly, almost cried, and I thought that his ears also hurt. (17) Father asked how long was left to the regional center. (18) But the driver, covering his face with his hands, kept repeating: “What a fool I am!” (19) Father thought and quietly said to mother: “We will need all the courage!” (20) I remembered these words for the rest of my life, although wild pain swirled around me like a snowflake in a snowstorm. (21) He opened the car door and went out into the roaring night. (22) The door slammed behind him, and it seemed to me as if a huge monster, clanging its jaws, swallowed my father. (23) The car was rocked by gusts of wind, and snow rustled down on the frost-covered windows. (24) I cried, my mother kissed me with cold lips, the young nurse looked doomedly into the impenetrable darkness, and the driver shook his head in exhaustion.

(25) I don’t know how much time passed, but suddenly the night was illuminated by bright headlights, and the long shadow of some giant fell on my face. (26) I closed my eyes and saw my father through my eyelashes. (27) He took me in his arms and pressed me to him. (28) In a whisper, he told his mother that he had reached the regional center, raised everyone to their feet and returned with an all-terrain vehicle.

(29) I dozed in his arms and through my sleep I heard him coughing. (30) Then no one attached any importance to this. (31) And for a long time afterwards he suffered from double pneumonia.

(32)…My children are perplexed why, when decorating the Christmas tree, I always cry. (33) From the darkness of the past, my father comes to me, he sits under the tree and puts his head on the button accordion, as if he secretly wants to see his daughter among the dressed-up crowd of children and smile cheerfully at her. (34) I look at his face shining with happiness and also want to smile at him, but instead I start crying.

(According to N. Aksenova)

Read a fragment of a review compiled on the basis of the text that you analyzed while completing tasks A29 - A31, B1 - B7.

This fragment examines the linguistic features of the text. Some terms used in the review are missing. Fill in the blanks with numbers corresponding to the number of the term from the list. If you do not know which number from the list should appear in the blank space, write the number 0.

Write down the sequence of numbers in the order in which you wrote them down in the text of the review where there are gaps in answer form No. 1 to the right of task number B8, starting from the first cell.

“The narrator’s use of such a lexical means of expression as _____ to describe the blizzard (“terrible blizzard", "impenetrable darkness"), gives the depicted picture expressive power, and such tropes as _____ (“pain circled me” in sentence 20) and _____ (“the driver began to scream shrilly, like a woman” in sentence 15), convey the drama of the situation described in the text . A device such as ____ (in sentence 34) enhances the emotional impact on the reader.”

Every day we come across a lot of means of artistic expression; we often use them in speech ourselves, without even meaning it. We remind mom that she has golden hands; we remember bast shoes, while they have long gone out of general use; We are afraid to get a pig in a poke and exaggerate objects and phenomena. All of these are tropes, examples of which can be found not only in fiction, but also in the oral speech of every person.

What is expressiveness?

The term "paths" comes from the Greek word tropos, which translated into Russian means "turn of speech." They are used to give figurative speech; with their help, poetic and prose works become incredibly expressive. Tropes in literature, examples of which can be found in almost any poem or story, constitute a separate layer in modern philological science. Depending on the situation of use, they are divided into lexical means, rhetorical and syntactic figures. Tropes are widespread not only in fiction, but also in oratory, and even everyday speech.

Lexical means of the Russian language

Every day we use words that in one way or another decorate our speech and make it more expressive. Vivid paths, examples of which are countless, are no less important than lexical means.

• Antonyms- words with opposite meanings.
• Synonyms- lexical units that are close in meaning.
• Phraseologisms- stable combinations consisting of two or more lexical units, which in semantics can be equated to one word.
• Dialectisms- words that are common only in a certain area.
• Archaisms- outdated words denoting objects or phenomena, modern analogues of which are present in human culture and everyday life.
• Historicisms- terms denoting already disappeared objects or phenomena.

Tropes in Russian (examples)

Currently, the means of artistic expression are magnificently demonstrated in the works of classics. Most often these are poems, ballads, poems, sometimes stories and tales. They decorate speech and give it imagery.

• Metonymy- replacing one word with another by contiguity. For example: On New Year's midnight the whole street came out to set off fireworks.
• Epithet- a figurative definition that gives an object an additional characteristic. For example: Mashenka had magnificent silk curls.
• Synecdoche- the name of the part instead of the whole. For example: A Russian, a Finn, an Englishman, and a Tatar are studying at the Faculty of International Relations.
• Personification- assignment of animate qualities to an inanimate object or phenomenon. For example: The weather was worried, angry, raging, and a minute later it began to rain.
• Comparison- an expression based on the comparison of two objects. For example: Your face is fragrant and pale, like a spring flower.
• Metaphor- transferring the properties of one object to another. For example: Our mother has golden hands.

Tropes in literature (examples)

The presented means of artistic expression are used less often in speech modern man, but this does not diminish their importance in the literary heritage of great writers and poets. Thus, litotes and hyperbole are often used in satirical stories, and allegory in fables. Periphrasis is used to avoid repetition in or speech.

• Litotes- artistic understatement. For example: A little man works in our factory.
• Periphrase- replacing the direct name with a descriptive expression. For example: The night star is especially yellow today (about the Moon).
• Allegory- depiction of abstract objects with images. For example: Human qualities- cunning, cowardice, clumsiness - are revealed in the form of a fox, a hare, a bear.
• Hyperbola- deliberate exaggeration. For example: My friend has incredibly huge ears, the size of his head.

Rhetorical figures

The idea of ​​every writer is to intrigue his reader and not demand an answer to the problem posed. A similar effect is achieved through the use of work of art rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals, omissions. All these are tropes and figures of speech, examples of which are probably familiar to every person. Their use in everyday speech is encouraged, the main thing is to know the situation when it is appropriate.

A rhetorical question is posed at the end of a sentence and does not require an answer from the reader. It makes you think about pressing issues.

The incentive offer ends. Using this figure, the writer calls for action. The exclamation should also be classified under the “tropes” section.

Examples of rhetorical appeal can be found in "To the Sea", in Lermontov ("The Death of a Poet"), as well as in many other classics. It applies not to a specific person, but to an entire generation or era as a whole. Using it in a work of art, a writer can blame or, on the contrary, approve of actions.

Rhetorical silence is actively used in lyrical digressions. The writer does not express his thoughts to the end and gives rise to subsequent reasoning.

Syntactic figures

Such techniques are achieved through sentence construction and include word order, punctuation; they make for an intriguing and interesting sentence design, which is why every writer strives to use these tropes. Examples are especially noticeable when reading the work.

• Multi-Union- deliberate increase in the number of conjunctions in a sentence.
• Asyndeton- absence of conjunctions when listing objects, actions or phenomena.
• Syntactic parallelism- comparison of two phenomena by depicting them in parallel.
• Ellipsis- deliberate omission of a number of words in a sentence.
• Inversion- violation of word order in a construction.
• Parcellation- deliberate division of a sentence.

Figures of speech

The paths in the Russian language, examples of which are given above, can be continued endlessly, but we should not forget that there is another conventionally distinguished section of means of expression. Artistic figures play an important role in written and oral speech.

Table of all tropes with examples

It is important for high school students, graduates of humanities faculties and philologists to know the variety of means of artistic expression and cases of their use in the works of classics and contemporaries. If you want to know in more detail what types of tropes there are, a table with examples will replace dozens of literary critical articles.

The role of means of artistic expression

The use of tropes in everyday speech elevates every person, makes him more literate and educated. A variety of means of artistic expression can be found in any literary work, poetic or prosaic. Paths and figures, examples of which every self-respecting person should know and use, do not have an unambiguous classification, since from year to year philologists continue to study this area of ​​the Russian language. If in the second half of the twentieth century they singled out only metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche, now the list has increased tenfold.

In tasks 24-26 of the Unified State Exam in the Russian language, the same linguistic phenomena may occur. In task 24 they act as lexical means of expression. We present to you these lexical means with a large number of examples of their use in speech.

Task formulation:

From sentences 44–47, write down antonyms (antonymic pair).

(44) But there are no huts that would be on the edge.(45) We are all responsible for what is happening around us. (46) Responsible for all the bad and all the good.(47) And one should not think that a real test comes to a person only in some special, fatal moments: in war, during some kind of catastrophe.

To complete task 24, you need to know lexical means of expression and find them in the text.

Synonyms– words of the same part of speech, close in meaning: sensitive and responsive, pity and compassion, hurry and hurry, etc.

Antonyms- words of the same part of speech, opposite in meaning: begin - end, clearly - vague, voluntary - forced, etc. The words with the same root are not antonyms: beautiful - ugly.

Note: synonyms and antonyms in the text can appear in different forms: good - bad, finished - will begin. Do not pay attention to the form (ending) - you are interested in the lexical meaning of the word.

Harder to find in text contextual synonyms and antonyms.

CONTEXT is a relatively complete semantically complete part of a text or statement. The overall meaning of the context is made up of the meanings of individual words; in turn, the context itself helps clarify the meaning of each word. That is, words live in the context, acquiring a specific meaning in it.

Compare offers:

1) Respect is manifested in the fact that you try to cover another person with your attention in order to understand him, to feel the best in him.

2) Here it is necessary to show sensitivity and attentiveness, sincerity and firmness.

In sentence 2 there were synonyms sensitivity - attentiveness. Taken out of context, they still remain close in meaning; they can be found in a dictionary of synonyms.

In sentence 1 there are contextual synonyms: understand - feel.

Imagine not knowing the context. These words are not perceived as synonyms; in another context they will take on different meanings: to understand your neighbor - to feel the cold.

You see, there is nothing in common between these words. Each of them has its own set of synonyms. The word feel has synonyms - experience, feel, experience, sense.

The word understand means to comprehend, understand, comprehend, realize, etc.

Contextual synonyms help avoid repetition of words (writer - author, home - apartment) or make the text more expressive. In this case, contextual synonyms are created like this: direct meaning words - figurative meaning (proud - eagle look, swim - glide on the water).

Examples of sentences with contextual synonyms:

1) Only hummocks and gullies indicated the direction of the trail. And even then this thin thread did not lead far. (path - thread)

2) Daytime flowers awaken when dawn begins. The chicory flowers open the blue stars of their flowers, the rose hips spread their wide petals, and the bright lights of the poppies flash.
(awaken - opens - straightens - flares up) All these verbs describe one action - awakening flowers in the morning.

Example sentences with contextual antonyms.

1) An inferiority complex can ruin the human soul. Or it can lift you to the skies.

Finding contextual antonyms: ruin - raise. Each of them has its own direct antonym: ruin - save, elevate - humiliate, lower. These words became antonyms only in this context.

2) He was a strange man: in front of his superiors he trilled like a ringing nightingale, but in front of his subordinates he roared like a wild bear. ( nightingale - bear)

As you can see, contextual antonyms also add expressiveness to the text and provide figurative characteristics.

Phraseologisms- stable combinations of words, understood not literally, but figuratively. Phraseologisms are not created anew each time; they live in the language in a ready-made form, enshrined in our memory and in dictionaries. As a rule, they are equal in meaning to one word, but have special expressiveness. Phraseologisms are stable; words in them cannot be changed or rearranged.

Examples of phraseological units: there is nowhere for the apple to fall, the chickens don’t peck, at the end of the world, to be sick in soul, in one spirit, to bring people out, to shed light, to stand like a mountain, to lose one’s head, in the order of things, etc.

Outdated words- words that have fallen out of use. Used in modern texts, they help recreate the flavor of a historical era. They often have a bright stylistic and emotional coloring.

Examples: trust in chance, see and listen, splendor, daring, malice, etc.

Neologisms- new words created to give names to new objects, life phenomena. A very mobile group: some neologisms take root in the language and cease to be neologisms, others become redundant and are forced out: copywriter, cleaner, retailer, multiplex, cluster, headliner, creative, trend, ombudsman, dress code, message, innovation, monitoring...

Colloquial words

The linguistic space where colloquial words live is Speaking. In the examination text they can appear at the will of the author if he reproduces someone else’s speech (this will be a means of characterizing a person) or uses a colloquial word in an ironic sense, emphasizing the author’s attitude to the subject of conversation.

Vernaculars are not always rude words of low style. These can be words that are incorrectly formed, having deviations from the norm in their grammatical characteristics: come in handy - come in handy, inside - inside, theirs - theirs, put - put, for free - for nothing. A colloquial word has commonly used stylistic neutral synonyms: newspaperman - journalist, crowd - crowd, a lot - a lot, work hard - work, yell - shout, lanky - tall, brainy - smart.

Let's complete the task:

Antonyms: bad - good

Note! Another formulation of task 24 has appeared: you may be asked to find a word in the text that has a certain meaning.

(19) It was a difficult path! (20) It was dark, and at every step the swamp opened its greedy mouth, swallowing people, and the trees blocked the road with a mighty wall.
(21) They walked for a long time... (22) The forest became more and more dense, their strength was less and less! (23) And so they began to grumble against Danko, saying that it was in vain that he, young and inexperienced, led them somewhere. (24) And he walked ahead of them and was cheerful and clear.

From sentences 19–24, write down the word that means “not quite openly express dissatisfaction or protest.”

In this example, the correct answer would be the word “murmur.”

Fine and expressive means of language allow not only to convey information, but also to clearly and convincingly convey thoughts. Lexical means of expression make the Russian language emotional and colorful. Expressive stylistic means are used when an emotional impact on listeners or readers is necessary. It is impossible to make a presentation of yourself, a product, or a company without using special language tools.

The word is the basis of visual expressiveness of speech. Many words are often used not only in their direct lexical meaning. The characteristics of animals are transferred to the description of a person’s appearance or behavior - clumsy like a bear, cowardly like a hare. Polysemy (polysemy) is the use of a word in different meanings.

Homonyms are a group of words in the Russian language that have the same sound, but at the same time carry different semantic load, serve to create sound play in speech.

Types of homonyms:

• homographs - words are written the same way, change their meaning depending on the emphasis placed (lock - lock);
• Homophones - words differ in one or more letters when written, but are perceived equally by ear (fruit - raft);
• Homoforms are words that sound the same, but at the same time refer to different parts of speech (I’m flying on an airplane - I’m treating a runny nose).

Puns are used to give speech a humorous, satirical meaning; they convey sarcasm well. They are based on the sound similarity of words or their polysemy.

Synonyms - describe the same concept from different sides, have different semantic load and stylistic coloring. Without synonyms it is impossible to construct a bright and figurative phrase; speech will be oversaturated with tautology.

Types of synonyms:

• complete - identical in meaning, used in the same situations;
• semantic (meaningful) - designed to give color to words (conversation);
• stylistic - have same value, but at the same time they relate to different styles of speech (finger-finger);
• semantic-stylistic - have a different connotation of meaning, relate to different styles of speech (make - bungle);
• contextual (author's) - used in the context used for a more colorful and multifaceted description of a person or event.

Antonyms are words that have opposite lexical meanings and refer to the same part of speech. Allows you to create bright and expressive phrases.

Tropes are words in Russian that are used in a figurative sense. They give speech and works imagery, expressiveness, are designed to convey emotions, and vividly recreate the picture.

Defining Tropes

Metaphor is a hidden comparison, the use of nouns and verbs in a figurative meaning. There is always no subject of comparison, but there is something with which it is compared. There are short and extended metaphors. Metaphor is aimed at external comparison of objects or phenomena.

Metonymy is a hidden comparison of objects based on internal similarity. This distinguishes this trope from a metaphor.

Syntactic means of expression

Stylistic (rhetorical) - figures of speech are designed to enhance the expressiveness of speech and artistic works.

Types of stylistic figures

Tropes, figures of speech, stylistic means of expression, and phraseological statements make speech convincing and vivid. Such phrases are indispensable in public speeches, election campaigns, rallies, and presentations. In scientific publications and official business speech, such means are inappropriate - accuracy and persuasiveness in these cases are more important than emotions.